Animals are heterotrophs

reqire food for...

fuel (chemical energy)

carbon sources (organic molecuels)

essential nutrients

provide fuel for all cellular work

provide organic raw materials for biosynthesis

provide essential nutrients

substances that the animal cannot make for itself

essential amino acids

essential fatty acids

vitamins

minerals

20, half can be made, half is essential amino acids

8 required for human diet

not enough essential amino acids?

1. herbivores; eat mainly autotrophs (plants and algae)

2. carnivores; eat other animals

3. parasites; feed on but don't kill host

4. omnivores; consume animals and producers

suspension feeders

substrate feeders

deposit feeders

fluid feeders

bulk feeders

live in or on food, eat their way through it

caterpiller

___ from oxidation of complex organic molecules

(food for fuel)

_____provide 2X calories than CHOs or proteins

fats!

4.5 cal/g carbs

9 cal/gram protien fat

glycogen

then fat

homeostatic imbalances

undernourishment (too few calories)

malnourishment (poor balance of nutrients)

obesity (increased disease risk)-over nourishment

world health organization

obesity is a major global health problem

diabetes

cardiovascular disease

(-arteriosclerosis=hardening of arteries, not w/obesity w/cronic HPB

-artherosclerosis=clogged arteries diet high fat)

increased risk of colon and breast cancer

act of eating 

requires specialized food capture adaptations

-teeth

-cilia

-tongue

food is broken down into molecules small enough for the body to absorbe

-breaking food into smaller molecules

-chemical

~enzymatic cleavage (macromolecules-->monomers)

~hydrolysis (water breaking apart) the most commmon

method

-mechanical

~chewing mixing

uptake of small monomers by small intestine (primarily)

ingestion

digestion

absorption

elimination

protein

sugar

fat

protein-amino acid

sugar-glucose

fat-fatty acid, glyceral

sated

ghrelin

insulin

pyy

leptin

ghrelin-feel hungry

insulin-full

pyy-counters ghrelin, full

leptin-full

leptin

hormone

mouse studies

-those that inherit a dect in the gene for this become very obese

normally become obese as chicks

theory; fat hoarding was a means of survival (obesity and evolution)

carbon skeletons needed for body to construct complex organic molecules

essential nutrients in preassembled form

an animal that is ___ is missing one or more essential nutrients in its diet

malnutrition is much more common than under-nutrition in human populations

amino acids in diet can be interconverted to other amino acids

fats can be made from CHOs and proteins

essential nutrients for humans

8 essential amino asids-->kwashiorkor if lacking

essential fatty acid; linoleic acid--> cell membranes (deficiencies are rare)

vegetarians

methionine

valine

threonine

phenylalanine

leucine

isoleucine

tryptophan

lysine

(corn and beans)

organic molecules required in very small quantities

act as cayalysts (coenzymes)

deficiencies can be severe

water soluble vitamines-->not stored CB

lipid soluble vitamins (ADEK) stored-->can overdose easily

13 human essential vitamins

1. water soluble vitamins

2. fat soluble vitamins

1. B1 thiamine

B2 riboflavin

B3 niacin

B6 pyridoxine

B5 pantothenic acid

B9 folic acid

B12

Biotin

Vitamin C ascorbic acid

(BC)

2. vitamin A retinol

vitamin D

Vitamin E tocopheral

(ADEK)

Vitamin K phylloquinone

inorganic nutrients required in diet in small quantities

strucctural (Ca, P)-bone

enzymes Cu

blood Fe hemoglobin

most animals process food in specialized compartments (segmentation)

reduce risk of self digestion

intracellular digestion

food vacuoles with enzymes

protozoans

sponges-all digestion is intracellular, unique to multi-celled animals

other multicelled animals use both intra and extra cellular digestion

extracellular digestion

 the breakdown of food particles outside of cells

occurs in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animals body

gastrovascular cavity

simple

single opening

found in cnidarians, platyhelminthes

process enzyme hydrolysis,phagocytic absorption

extracellular first then intracellular

alimentary canal:Gastrointestinal tract

two openings

digestive canal

allows for stepwise digestion along length

more efficient

mammalian digestive system

alimentary canal (GI tract)

oral cavity (buccal cabity)

pharynx

esophagus

stomach

small intestine

large intestine

accessory glands

hormones

water reclamation

most water is absorbed in stomach and small intestine

colon and kidneys regulate how hydrated you are

salivary glands

pancreas

liver

gall badder-stores bile (liver product for digestion)

oral cavity

physical and chemical

saliva-salivary amylase (enzyme)

tongue

teeth

pharynx

air food

epiglottis; blocks airway while swallowing (cartilage)

peristalsis (smooth muscle contractions)

regulated by sphincters

-controlled by ANS (automatic nervous system) and gastrin (hormone activates digestive system)

-mucous cells, mucin, gastirn(stimulates further secretion)

-chief cells, pepsinogen (a zymogen)

-parietal cells

*HCL

*pH 1-4 av. 2.5 stomach

*kills bacteria

*denatures protein

*convers pepsinogen->pepsin (protease-enzyme breaks down proteins)

lesions in the lining

80%caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori

18' long humans

digestion absorption

major organ for chemical digestion

*villi increase surface area

*capillaries and lacteals transport absorbed nutrients

*brush border (icrovillar surface) exposed to lumen

*absorption; diffusion or active transport

-aa and sugars; blood -->liver (interconverted, stored)

-glycerol+fatty acids; recombined, coated with proteins-> chylomicrons->lacteals to blood vessels

proteases, lipases, CHO(carbohydrates) enzymes, nucleases

bicargonate buffer (rais pH)

put sodium bicarbonate on acid spills

bile (gall bladder)

bile salts emulsifies fat

pigments from destroyed RBCs (bilirubin)

Large intestine

colon

recover water

feces more solid

houses e. coli

80% feces is bacteria, 20% is undigested food

fermentation chambers (as many as four gastric chambers)

bacteria, protists produce cellulase

structures where this occurs

*cecum (horses)

*cecum and colon (rabit)

*chambered stomachs (ruminants)

nutrients

wastes

gases

hemolymph; blood and interstitial fluid

hemolymph bathes internal organs

moves through sinuses via dorsal heeart and body muscle contractions

arthropoda, most molluscs

heart pumps into vessels

branch into smaller vessels-tissues

annelida, cephalopoda, vertebrata

heart, blood vessels, blood

1-2 atria (receive blood)

1-2 ventricles (pump blood out)

arteries; carry bood away from heart

veins carry blood to heart (small = venules)

cappillaries; microscopic vessels diameter=RBC diameter

-site of chemical exchange between blood and interstitial fluid

2 atria, 1 ventricle

double circulation (pulmonocutaneous and systemic circuits)

-ventricle->lung/skin (O2 in, CO2 out)->left atrium->ventricle->all other orgnas (O2 out, CO2 in)->right atrium->repeat

-some mixing of O2 and deO2 blood in ventricle by minimized by anatomical shape

2 atria, 1 ventricle

ventricle partially divided

double circulation (pulmonary and systemic circuits)

-ventricle->lungs (O2 in, CO2 out)->left atrium->ventricle->body (O2 out, CO2 in)->rt. atrium->ventricle->repeat

partially divided ventricle minimizes mixing of O2 deO2 blood

2 atria, 2 ventricles

double circulation

no mixing of O2 and deO2 blood in heart

increases O2 deliver (higher metabolic rates)

heart rate

beats/min

HR inversely proortional to size

humans 60-70 at rest

elephants 25

shrews 600

sequence of contractions and relaxations

systole; contraction

diastole; relax, chambers fill w blood

amount of blood flowing thru heart in 1 min

CO=HR X SV

SV=the amount of blood pumped out w contraction

sinoatrial node (myogenic=self-excitable), pacemaker

-location in R atrium wall

-muscle with neuron characteristics

-initiates atrial contraction together (l and r)

receives AP action potential from atria

base of atria

impulse transmitted to ventricles-->contraction

HR control

ECG

sympathetic (speeds up)

parasympathetic (slows down)

hormones, epinephrine speeds up HR (adrenaline

body temp=HR up

aerobic fitness up=HR down

age, baby/elderly=up, adult=down

gener, f=up, m=down

Nervous system: somatic vs autonomic

somatic= voluntary

autonomic=involuntary

blood vessel structure

3 types

3 layers

types;arteries, veins, capillaries

layers;

outer elastic connective tissue layer

middle smooth muscle elastic connective

inner endothelium

outer layer thicker (higher BP)

lower BP

thinner walls

one-way valves

muscle contractions help move blood, breathing

capillaries

endothelium only

allow diffusion

50 cm.s in aorta

100x slower in capillaries

as blood spreads out from arteries into capillaries, cross sectional area increases

velocity inversely proportional to x sectonal area-slows down

resistance higher in capillaries-KE-heat, slows down

speed increases in venules and veins (smaller x sectional area)

hydrostatic pressure drives blood through vessels

-=the force of blood against the vessel wall

-determined by CO

peripheral resistance opposes flow

-stress->vasoconstriction->increased resistance

controlled by

1. arteriole wall smooth muscle

2. precapillary sphincters

e.g.

blood shunted to digestive system after meal

exercis; blood to muscle

endocytosis/exocytosis

endo-cells draw materials inside by engulfing

exo-opposite

similar to interstitial fluid

moves via valves and muscels contractions squeezing the vessels (like veins)

returnfluid and some proteins to blood from leaky capillaries

fat transport

immunity

vessels drain inot subclavian veins near shoulders

filter lymph

attack viruses and bacteria

swollen nodes due to rapid lymphocye reproduction

4-6 L average human

45%o volume is formed (cellular) elements

55% of volume=plasma (liquid part)

sodium

potassium

calcium

albumin

fibrinogen

immunoglobulins

nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, vitamins)

 waste products of metabolism

respiratory gases (O2 and CO2)

hormones

transport oxygen and help transport carbon dioxide

biconcave disks-increase surface area

lack nucleii and mitochondria in mammal

contains hemoglobin in cell membrane Fe containing prorein

medium of 3

basophil

neutrophil

eosinophil

lymphocyte

monocyte

=defense and immunity

largest

blood clotting

fragments of megakaryocytes from red bone marrow

no nucleii

smallest

buffer blood

osmotic balance

viscosity

transport lipids

clotting factors

1. prothrombin to thrombin

2. thrombin catalyzes finbrinogen to fibrin

3. fibrin threads capture formed elements to clot

cerribro vascular accident

stroke 1. hemorrhagic-leak

stroke 2. ischemic-block

higher O2 concentration

faster diffusion rates of o2 and co2

respiratory surfaces require less ventilation

mantle-lungs;land snails

book lungs; arachnids

lunfish; espophageal pockets (develope from swim bladder)

amphibians; simple balloon like

reptiles, more complex

birlds (1 way) mammals (2 way)

skeletal

non voluntary