Nervous System:

A. two forms of communication:

B. function:

A. 1. neurons: electric signals, fast

2. hormones: chemical signals, slower but longer response

B. communication, integrate, and coordinate functions of organs and organ systems

Types of Neurons:

neuron structure:

1. sensory: receptor-->central nervous system

2. inteneurons: within Central nervous system: sensory-->motor

3. motor: central nervous sytem-->effector (ex. muscle)

-cell body, dentrites, axon

__ covered with ___ sheath

axon; myelin (lipid)

____ ____ hops: 1 node of ____ to next; fast

action potential; Ranvier

signal of nerve system:

nerve impulse aka action potential

_____ _____  is produced by change in ____ _____

action potential; membrane permeability

resting potential:

key info

- electrical potential is -70 mV

-more K on the inside of the cell

-more Na on the outside of the cell

-more negative on the inside than outside

-polarized 

how is resting potential maintained?

sodium potassium ATPase pump

-pumps Na (3) out and K (2) in

-K can slip easily back out

-some channels are voltage regulated

when minimum stimulus, ____ is reached, then ___ ____ is generated; which is called _____

threshold; action potential; depolarization

depolarization:

repolarization:

1. Na goes inside 

2. K goes outside

neurotransmitter release sequence:

1. a synaptic vessicle containing neurotransmitter approaches the plasma mebrane

2. due to the influx of calcium ions, the vesicle fuses with the membrane

3. exoctyosis occurs

4. vesicle reforms and begins to fill with more neurotransmitter

action potential is __ __ __ response

all or none

what happens after action potential?

refractory period

depolarization: more ___

repolarization: more ___

hyperpolarization: more ___ than _____ potential

- +; -; -; resting

hyperpolarization happens in ___ msec

1.5

how can the speed be increased for action potential

1. increasing axon diameter

2. adding myelin sheath

-action potentials only formed at Nodes of Ranvier

-saltatory conduction: speeds up AP 

Transmission of AP Between cells 

-action potential reaches axon teminal-->synapse nerves-->nerve

Or nerve-->muscle cell or gland cell

synaptic cleft:

space between cells

2 types of synapses:

1. Electrical synapses: + ions move directly from 1 neuron to the next neuron; go both in one directions; 

ex. fish darting away from predator

2. chemical synapses: chemical = neurotransmitter (ACh, epinephren) stored in vesicles, presynapses neuron, diffuses across synaptic cleft, binds to receptor in postynaptic membrane, causes depolaization

_____ need to be inactivated; if not inactive they cannot function

neurotransmitters

ex. ACh

Invertebrate nervous system:

-need tissues

-Cnidaria: nerve net

-platyhelminthes: 1st cephalization; ladder-like; ganglion

-annelida, arthropoda: brain and more internal structures, more advanced movements possible ex. spider

Vertebrate Nervous system:

peripheral nervous system track:

peripheral nervous system-->motor (efferent) nerves-->A. somatic nervous system(voluntary)

B. autonomic nervous system (involuntary)-->a. sympathetic; b. parasympathetic; c. enteric division

sympathetic:

-fight of flight response

parasmpathetic:

- stimulation for digestion/contentment

Vertbrate nervous system:

central nervous system:

----> a. spinal cord; b. brain

Somatic nervous system: 

-voluntary motor nerves 

___ bundled

in CNS= ____;

in PNS=____

-axons; tracts; nerves 

Central Nervous System components

-spinal cord + brain

spinal cord's 2 functions:

1. links brain and rest of body

2. important in reflex arc (sesory-->spinal cord-->motor nerves)

what protects the CNS?

-cerebrospinal fluid

3 protective layers: meninges

1. dura mater: outer layer, tough, fibrous membrane

2. arachnoid: middle layer, delicate and connects to the innerlayer

3. pia mater: inner layer, contains small blood vessels that nourishes spinal cord

___ ____ emerge between vertebrae

spinal nerves

Brain parts:

1. forebrain: telencephalon + dicephalon

2. mid brain: mesencephalon

3. hindbrain: metencephalon + myelencephalon

Hindbrain: function

parts?

-connects to spinal cord

1. medulla oblongata: connects to spinal cord; reflex centers for breathing, swallowing, Cardio-vascular function and gastic secretion; visceral functions and screens info into/out of brain

2. cerebellum: posture, orientation, balance 

3. pons: bridge between cerebrum and cerebellum

Midbrain: function

-coordinates reflex responses to visual, tactile and auditory input

Forebrain: 

parts of dicencephalon

a. thalamus: relay center for sensory info from vision, hearing, touch

b. hypothalamus: controls basic drives-hunger, thirst, sex drive, and body temp

c. pituitary gland: master endocrine gland

d. pineal gland: controls some body rhythms

Forebrain: 

parts of the telencephalon:

a. cerebrum: sensory and motor integration, complex muscle movements, voluntary thought

b. olfactory bulb: olfaction; large in sharks

c. limbic system: controls emotional behavior

Cranial Nerves:

-12 pairs in repitiles, aves, and mammals

-1 olfactory; 2 optic; 10 vagus: stimulate digestion

Autonomic nervous system: parts

1. sympathetic: fight of flight response; example: increased heart rate, dilated pupils, great fear

2. parasympathetic: stimulates digestion and contentment example: contment after a big meal

Endocrine System:

parts: 

1. local chemical messages: vicinity

2. neurotransmission in chemical synapses

3. neuropeptides (hybrid)

4. horomones blood to target cells

5. pheromones exterior, affect behavior of 2nd individual of same species

hormones

chemical synapse in endocrine gland, travles through blood to affect target cells in predictable way

pituitary gland parts:

anterior and posterior lobes

posterior lobe parts:

1. oxytocin (2 functions)

2. ADH: increases H2O release in kidneys

anterior lobe: 6 hormones

tropic hormones? 

-cause 2n endocrine gland release hormones

1. TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone): stimulations thyroid to release thyroxin

2. ACTH: stimulates adrenal gland to synapses/release corisol

3. GH: stimulates bone/muscle growth

4. PRL: stimulates milk production (not let down)

5. Thyroid: thyroxine

6. calcitonin: stimulates deposition of Ca++ into bone

Parahtyroid glands: 

function:

Parathormone (Parathyroid hormone) regulates Ca, PO4 ions in blood, causes bone to release Ca when blood [Ca] is low , and increases reabsorption of Ca from kidney

Adrenal Cortex: function?

1. cortisol: increase [glucose] in blood; fasting

2. adolsterone: increase Na+ uptake in kidneys and sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) 

Adrenal Medulla:

function:

-epinephrine and nonepinephrine: both increase heart rate, metabolism

Pancrease: hormones?

1. glucagon (alpha): increase glucose in blood; fasting

2. insulin (beta): decrease glucose in blood; after meal

Testes: 

-testosterone: growth/maintance of male genitalia; sex behavior; secondary sex characteristics 

Ovaries: 

-relaxin (softens cervix at base)

1. estrogins: regulate menstrual cycle; 2 sex changes

2. progestins: regulate menstrual cycle; placenta development

3. inhibin: inhibits secretion of follicle stimulating hormone

4. hCG: from trophoblast cells (from an embryo and is food for an embryo)

Sexual Reproduction?

types?

1. External fertilization: aqueous animals

2. internal fertilization: territial animals--spiders, ticks

3. hermaphroditism: both

4. protandry: indivdidual first male, second female
-gonad--->testes-->ovary 

Asexual types:

1. Fission: 1-->2

-binary fission: schizogomy

2. budding: bud=F1--hydra

3. Fragmentation: pieces break off adult, form F1--starfish

4. parthenogenesis: reproduction with out sperm; no males--rotifera, daphnia

advantage and disadvantage of sexual reproduction?

advantage: hybrid vigor in the offspring

disadvantage: Finding a mate, courtship, sterility, waste of energy

Sexual Reproduction in Vertebrates

types and what vertebrates?

1. fish and amphibian: external fertilization

2. reptile, aves, mammals: internal fertilization, sperm transfer organ is the penis, hemipenis

-zygote--->embryo in amniote egg; huge advancement that made territarial existence possible

Human Male Reproduction System:

-testes with seminiferous tubules, sperm

-sperm storage in epididymis and vas deferens

-accessory glands add secretions, semen

Accessory Glands:

types and functions:

1. seminal vesicle fluid (pineal gland): energy source for sperm and buffer to neutralize vaginal acidity

2. prostate fluid: buffers vaginal acidity

3. bulbuourethral glands (pineal glands): slippery fluid

spermatogenesis happens in _____

seminiferous tubules

spermatogensis path

spermagonium-->1. spermocyte
2. spermocyte-->spermatid-->spermazoa 

Follicle-stimulating horomone (FSH) for males function? 

source?

-aids sperm maturation; increases testosterone production

-pituitary gland

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in males function?

source?

-controls pituitary secretion

-hypothalamus

inhibin in males function and source

-inhibits FSH secretion

-sustentacular cells in testes

luteinizaing hormone (LH) or interstitial cell-stimulating horomone (ICSH) function in males? and source?

-stimulates tesosterone secretion

-pituitary gland

testosterone function in males and source?

-increases sperm production; stimulates development of male primary and secondary sexual characteristics; inhibits LH secretion

-interstitial cells in testes

androgen: what is it? and it's function

-testosterone; steroid homorone, synthesis in Leydig (interstitial) cells between seminiferous tubules

-function: sperm produced, development male 1 and 2nd sex characteristics

path of male horomone stuff

Hypothalamus-->GnRH---> 2 gonadotropins-->1. LH--->interstitial cells in testes-->secretion of testosterone stimulates a.seminiferous tubules; b. somatic tissues; c. mate secondary sex chracteristics(facial hair); d.male primary sex chracterstics(mature genitals); e. brain(behavioral changes)

2. FSH-->spermatogenic cells in testes-->spermatogensis

Human Female reproductive system:

parts and functions?

-2 ovaries: produce oocytes and female sex horomones estrogen and progesterone

-2 uterine tubes(fertilization occurs in uper 1/3) care eggs ovary--->uterus(blastocyte attaches to uterus)

-vagina: receives sperm; periods(shedding endometrium); birth canal

-mammary glands produce milk for F1

-uterus ends in cervix, joins with vagina

-vagina: smooth muscle and elastic tissue

____ contractions of tubes and beating _____ carry _ oocyte along uterine tube

peristal; cilia; 2

ovaries produce ___, _____ and _____

eggs, estrogen, and progesterone

ovaries have _____

different stages: 1.

2.

3. 

4.

and ovaries have ____ ______

follicles

1. primordia

2. 1 follicle

3. 2 follicle

4. Graafian follicle

corpeus luteum

fertilization path?

no fertilization?

embryo---> blastocyst implants in the body of the uterus

2 oocyte and endometrium degenerate

Hormone path for females

hypothalamus---> GnRH acts on anterior pituitary gland--> 1. LH--> corpus luteum in ovary produces progesterone and some estrogen--->maintances of endometrium for possible implantation of fertilized ovum

2. FSH--->maturing follicle in ovary--->estrogen--->a. development of secondary sex characteristics b. stimulates growth and thickening of endometrium

females only ____ a few days/month

fertile

_____ produce of horomones control 2 _____ development

cyclical; oocyte

estrogen in females function and source?

- stimulates thickening of uterine wal, maturation of oocyte and development of female sexual characteristics; inhibits FSH secretion; increases LH secretion

-ovarian follicle, corpus luteum

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in women function; and source?

- causes immature oocyte and follicle to develop; increase estrogen secretion; stimulates new gamete formation and development of uterine wall after menstruation

-pituitary gland

GnRH function in women; and source?

-control pituitary secretion

-hypothalamus

hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) function in women and source?

-prevents corpus luteum from disintegrating; stimulates corpus luteum to secrete estrogen and progesterone

-embryonic membranes and placenta

inhibin function in women and source?

-inhibits secretion of FSH from the anterior pituitary gland

-ovaries

LH (lutenizing hormone) function in women and source?

-stimulates further development of oocyte and follicle; stimulates ovulation; increases progesterone secretion; aids in development of corpus luteum

-pituitary gland

oxytocin function in women and source? 

-stimulates uterine contractions during labor and milk release during nursing

-pituitary gland

prolactin function in women and source?

-promotes milk secretion by mammary glands after childbirth

-pituitary gland

progesterone in women function and source?

-stimulates thickening of uterine wall

-corpus luteum

relaxin function in women and source:

-increases flexibility of pubic symphysis during pregnancy and helps dilate uterine cervix during labor and delivery

-placenta and ovaries

Menstrual/Ovarian Cycle:

-follicular: follicle matures in the ovary; menstraution (endometrium breaks down); endometrium rebuilds [duration in days=1-5]

-ovulation: ovary releases secondary oocyte [duration in days = 6-14]

-luteal: corpus luteum forms; endometrium thickens and becomes glandular

what happens in menopause?

ovaries lose sensitivity to FSH & LH thus stop most production of estrogene and progesterone 

what is the control center?

hypothalamus

Hormone regulation in pregnancy

-cells of embryo and placenta form hCG,which keeps corpus luteum from disintegrating

-ovaires produce porgesterone, maintains uterine lining

over time placenta produces _____, corpus luteum dies

progesterone

hCG high in ____ 2 weeks after implantation

blood

anterior pituitary gland:

posterior pituitary gland: 

-prolactin: stimulates milk production

-oxytocin: stimulates uterine contraction; milk let down

Placenta function:

organ provides gases, food and removes wastes between mom and F1 systems

how does the blastocyst get nutrients? 

chorionic villi (fingerlike projections from the blastocyst) contain embryonic blood vessiles

partunition:

smooth and skeletal muscles contract

System Condition 1

-in the sustainable society, nautre is not subject to systematically increasing concentrations of substances extracted from the Earth's crust

_____ temperature changes can have large ____ _____

small; climate effects

tundra:

-high latitudes/elevations, no trees permafrost, summers are cool and short; long winters

boreal forest (taiga):

-lower latitudes/elevations than tundra; evergreens dominate

temperate deciduous forest:

-deciduous trees and shurbs dominate

temperate glasslands:

-prairies, less precipitation

hot deserts:

-dryest, form~30 degrees latitude; least precipitation; hot and warm all year; animals active at night; succlulents dominant plants

cold deserts: 

-dry, mid/high latitudes

-2nd dryest

chapparal:

-hot dry summers, wet cool winters

-western side of continents , mid-lattitudes

 thorn forests and tropical savannas:

-low rain in winter; heavier rain in summer; found at lower latitudes than hot deserts

tropical evergreen forest: 

-rich in species

-very high precipitation, warm and rainy all year, lush with vegetation; highest overall productivity/diversity of all biomes, but most nutrients tied up in begetation, not soil, so when cut for agriculture, large maount of fertilizaer used to complensate for nutrient-poor soils

Oceans life zones?

-life regions: photic zone(where there is enough light for photosynthesis to happen) 
aphotic zone (where there isn't enough light for p.s.)

-coastal zone: shore to edge continental shelf

-pelagic zone: offshore of coast zone, deep 

sea floor regions:

-continental shelf: shallow, high dissolved oxygen water; rich diversity, octuopus, sea grasses, kelp forests

-benthic zone: continental slope to abyssal plain

-aphotic zone: animals may eat decaying organic matter, "snow", sinking from above

coral reef communities:

-very high diversity

-bleachin: coral reefs dying due to climate change or other factors; growing problem

-recent large loss of these diverse tropical comunities

freshwater ecosystems:

-lakes, rivers, etc.

-lakes have littoral zone near shore, high deiversity

-lakes have limnetic zone offshore, phytoplank form base of food web, zooplank, nekton

-rivers/streams lack plankton, often rich benthos(bottom dwelling)

estuaries:

-characteristics of both freshwater and marine environments

popluation:

-individuals of species in same ecosystem

population density:

-number of individuals per unit of area of volume

species with small indivdiduals have ____ populations densities tahn species with _____ individuals

higher; large

K:

-number of individuals in population, that environment can support

-K limited by environmental factors; food, dissolved oxygen, predators, disease, limited space for fish population

r-strategies:

-oysters; 2000+ offspring, no parental care

k-stragegists:

-elephant or wahle, one offspring at a time; parental care

each individual _____ usually makes things worse for other _______ in populations, so per capita birth and death rates change with population denisites

-added; individual

density-dependent:

-depletion of food

-deplete food, reduce food per individual, so poor nutrition decreases birth rate, increases death rate

_____ attracted to areas with high prey density

predators

density independent factors:

-hurricane kill a percent of population

biological control for pest populations:

humans bring in predators that weren't previously there