Term
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Definition
People are intuitive psychologists
They try to understand the causes of human behavior |
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Term
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Definition
— correspondent inference theory
When does behavior lead to an attribution of dispositional characteristics?
Social desirability
Expectedness
Role-related
Norm-related
Free choice |
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Term
| Kelly’s theory of causal attribution |
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Definition
Consistency: does the person respond to the stimulus in the same way on other occasions?
Consensus: do others respond to the stimulus similarly?
Distinctiveness: is the person’s response dependent upon the particular stimulus? |
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Term
| Attribution to external causes |
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Definition
High consistency
High consensus
High distinctiveness |
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Term
| Attribution to internal causes |
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Definition
High consistency
Low consensus
Low distinctiveness |
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Term
| Fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| we overestimate the importance of dispositional variables as causes of others’ behavior (and we underestimate the importance of situational variables) |
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Term
| Actor-observer differences |
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Definition
Our behavior depends on the situation
Others’ behavior is due to their dispositions |
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Definition
We take credit for our positive outcomes
We blame the situation for our negative outcomes |
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Term
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Definition
Tendency to believe that our own attitudes, beliefs, and behavioral predispositions are relatively more prevalent and widely held
Eat at Joe’s sign experiment, Obama/McCain supporters estimations, and pro-life supporters estimations
Why?
Biased sampling— we more frequently interact with people who share our opinions and behavioral tendencies
Self enhancement— motivational desires to believe that our own opinions and behavioral tendencies are correct and appropriate |
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Term
| Ultimate attribution error |
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Definition
| In an ambiguous situation, people make attributions consistent with their beliefs or prejudices |
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Term
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Definition
Our assumptions about others influence our behavior toward them, often resulting in a confirmation of our expectations
Steps
Misattribution
↓
Our own behavior
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Other’s behavior
↓
Confirmation of misattribution
Examples
Mother-in-law is nasty
Insult mother-in-law
Mother-in-law becomes angry and behaves accordingly
See how nasty she is?!
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Term
| Pygmalion effect (Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968) |
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Definition
| the greater the expectation, the better the performance |
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Term
| Snyder, Tanke, and Berscheid 1977 |
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Definition
“Get acquainted” telephone conversation between male and female participants
Each male was given a photograph of the female he was supposedly interacting with (some attractive and some unattractive)
Blind judges rated the taped conversations
Men behaved more sociably, interesting, bold, sexually warm, humorous, and independent when they thought they were talking to an attractive woman
Women behaved similarly |
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Term
| Word, Zanna, and Cooper 1973 |
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Definition
Phase 1— white participants were interviewers of black and white confederates playing the role of job applicants
Participants took more time, gave more eye contact, leaned forward more with white applicants
Phase 2— trained white interviewers behaved in two ways (more versus less time, eye contact, etc.) with white participants playing the role of applicant
Participants were rated more highly by judges when the interviewer gace them more time, eye contact, leaned forward |
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Term
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Definition
Thurstone (1928)
The amount of affect for or against a psychological object
Allport (1935)
A preparation or readiness to respond in a favorable manner to some person, group, event, object, or idea
Aronson (2007)
An opinion that includes an evaluative and an emotional component
Bem (1970)
Our likes and dislikes
Epiphenomenal |
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Term
| Three component model of attitudes (ABC model) |
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Definition
Affect: emotion, feelings; like versus dislike; classical conditioning
Behavior: overt actions; approach or avoid certain things; operant conditioning
Cognition: beliefs, thoughts; true versus false; modeling |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Instrumental (operant) conditioning |
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Definition
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| Observational learning (modeling) |
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Definition
imitation
Albert Bandura
Bobo doll |
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Term
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Definition
Collect statements reflecting the attitude (both favorable and unfavorable)
Ask participants to indicate the extent of agreement (1-5 scale, etc.)
Eliminate items that do not correlate highly with total score
Potential problems
Are people aware of their attitudes? If so, this works fine; if not, use other techniques
Are people willing to reveal their attitudes? If so, this works fine; if not, use other techniques
Are peoples’ attitudes one-dimensional? Attitude depends on the context (e.g. Women are equal in the workplace, but are better mothers at home); subscales— usually answer the same on both, but not always |
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Term
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Definition
and a Chinese couple traveled through the West and Midwest (U.S. And Canada)
Rejected service just once
Stayed at 66 hotels, homes, and auto camps
Ate at 184 restaurants and cafes
Six months later, sent out a questionnaire, “Will you accept members of the Chinese race as guests?”
50% response rate: 0ver 90% said no, less than 10% said uncertain, just one response said yes |
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Term
| Ajzen and Fishbein’s theory of planned behavior |
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Definition
General attitudes do not predict specific behavior, but specific attitudes do
Subjective norms (expectations of others) influence behavior
Theory applies to deliberate and controllable behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| a negative drive-state occurring when an individual holds two cognitions which are psychologically inconsistent |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive dissonance theory; People strive to maintain consonance, consistency among ideas |
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Term
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Definition
If you get someone to behave in a way that is inconsistent with his or her attitude and there is no clear external justification for the behavior, the attitude may change to fit the behavior
Festinger and Carlsmith (1957)— when does the dull task become interesting, in the $1 or $20 condition?
The $1 condition— no clear external justification for saying it was interesting |
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Term
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Definition
| If you prevent someone from doing something he or she would like to do and you use minimal external pressure, the activity will be seen as less desirable and the individual will refrain from doing it in the future |
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Term
| Post-decision dissonance reduction |
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Definition
Following a decision, we emphasize the positive aspects of the decision and minimize the negative aspects of the decision
Therefore, we strengthen the belief that the correct decision was made |
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Term
| ROA effect (re-evaluation of alternatives) |
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Definition
Brehm’s market research study
Women rate eight appliances
As a reward, they can pick one of two as a gift
Re-rate all appliances, and if both appliances were attractive, rate chosen one as higher than rejected one
Computer dating service studies (Simpson)
Rate attractiveness of potential dates
Those in committed relationships give lower rating to attractive people |
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Term
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Definition
The harder you work for something, the more desirable it becomes
Aronson and Mills (1959)
Female volunteers for group discussion “the psychology of sex” |
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Term
| Aronson’s reformulation of cognitive dissonance theory |
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Definition
“Dissonance is most powerful in situations in which the self-concept is threatened.”
Free choice
Irrevocable behavior
Negative consequences
Foreseeable consequences |
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Term
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Definition
| we minimize the mental effort instead of engaging in felicific calculus |
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Term
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Definition
| calculating the degree or amount of pleasure that a specific action is likely to cause |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| using similarity or resemblance of objects as a basis for judgement |
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Term
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Definition
| basing judgements on how readily information can be brought to mind |
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Term
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Definition
| recently and frequently activated concepts readily come to mind and are used to interpret social events |
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Term
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Definition
| judgements are affected by the way information is presented |
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