-Life History

-Evolutionary Adaptation

-Organism as fundamental Unit

The study of the relationship(s) between organisms and their environment (physical and biological components)

-includes interspecific and intraspecific

oikos = greek "the family household"

logy = the study of

-similar to economics (study of the household)

They interact in the context of an ecosystem

eco=environment

system=collection of related parts that function as a unit

Basic Components...

biotic- living

abiotic- non-living (climate soil, water)

§ group of related individuals which can mate & produce viable offspring

offspring are “viable” only if they can also reproduce

Community

§ All populations existing within an ecosystem

§ Implication of interacting populations

§ Many forms of interaction exist

Ecosystem

§ Sum of interacting populations (community) & physical environment.

§ Ecosystems have many levels: Individual, Population, & Community

         ®               ®                 ®

§ Dimensionless: tiny to huge (scale)

§ Can be difficult to delineate

§ Usually shaped by ecological processes

Biosphere

§ Sum of all ecosystems on Earth

Ecosystem at the Planetary Level

§ Ultimately, all things on the Earth are connected, & affect each other at some level 

Ecology is interdisciplinary

§ Plant Ecology

§ Animal Ecology

§ Population Ecology

§ Evolutionary Ecology

§ Landscape Ecology

§ Restoration Ecology

*********ECOLOGY IS ABOUT INTERACTIONS!!!

Ecology as a Science

Ecologists Use the Scientific Method:

§ Hypothesis (predictions)

- Test hypothesis with data

§ Statistical analysis / results

§ Accept or reject hypothesis

§ Observations and experiments can lead to the development of models and further predictions.

§ Observation:

§ documentation of information from observation of natural events

§ Hypothesis:

§ statement of causation which can be tested, then either accepted or rejected

Ecological studies test hypotheses

-Field study:

§ collect data on naturally occurring situation

- Field experiment:

§ manipulation of variables in field situation

§ pro: may help to shed light on what is really occurring

§ con: little control over extraneous variables

- Lab experiment:

§ experimentation in lab setting

§ pro: better control of variables

§ con: may not be same variables as in field

RULE NUMBER 1: Ecology is a science

Types of variables

§ Independent variable:

§ not influenced by fluctuation in other variable

§ always on x axis

§ e.g., N availability

§ Dependent variable:

§ changes with shifts in the independent variable

§ always on y axis

§ e.g., growth & productivity

Models & Prediction

§ Models:

§ mathematical or verbally descriptive

§ simplifies concepts & make them easier to understand & quantify

§ Predictions:

§ result of observation & experiments

§ predict what will happen in a given situation 

-explaitation and extinction

-european civilization

-"market hunting" in NA (1870-1900) included robins, shorebirds, plumage from trumpeter swans

Era of Exploitation - Market Hunting

-waterfowl>400 ducks per day per person!! (10cents per bird)

Era of Exploitation

-persecution of predators, especially wolves and coyotes

-bounties and predator control

-bison-near extinction

-European settlement in Great Plains around 1850

-Civil Wars (US vs Plains Indians)

-increased access via railways and better rifles

-during 1871-1872 8.5 million bison were shot

-bison populations declined from ~60 million to 150 during period of 1860-1889

Cypress Hills Provincial Park

-Passenger Pigeon went extinct

-populations were estimated at >2billion birds

-in 1871 136 million p.p. nested in 2200 km2 area of central wisconsin

HOW DID PASSENGER PIGEONS GO EXTINCT?

-shot for food

-young birds were considered a delicacy, so many nesting colonies were decimated through habitat loss (tree felling)

-1885 last colony was located

-last passenger pigeon died in Cincinnati Zoo in 1914

-extinction is a natural proces that has occurred for millennia due to natural selection

-however, recent extinctions occur at a much faster rate compared to natural extinction levels (geologic time)

Eventual Change

-Migratory Bird Treaty 1917

-Hunting Controls

-Aldo Leopold (1930's) - the founder of modern wildlife management (Game Management 1933), (Sand County Almanac 1949)

-Rachel Carson - Silent Spring 1962 ... beginning of "environmental movement"

VALUES
1)Biological and Scientific (pursuit of knowledge)

2)Existence Values (simply knowing a resource exists)

3)Commercial (value of income .. ie. guide outfitting)

4)Recreational ("willingness to pay" for outdoor recreational opportunities)

-Contingent Valuation

-Public Values typically drive wildlife management

stewardship- if we can convince people that wildlife has value, there is a greater chance of successful conservation

consumptive vs non-consumptive users

"hunters vs bird watchers"

consumptive - a user of a resource that would have a direct affect on that resource (hunting and fishing)

non-consumptive - would not

n Habitat loss remains the major cause of decline for species at risk

n However, we also need to know how other factors are influencing declines (e.g., predation)

n We need to focus on habitat relationships

 

n  We need to understand habitat selection patterns from the animals perspective !

Specifically, we need to know….

n Which habitats are selected, when they are selected and preferably why (e.g., preferred food source).

n If there are specific habitat features (e.g., tree cavities, mineral licks) that influence habitat use

n How the various habitats are spatially distributed

*FOOD

*WATER

*SPACE

*COVER

Two aspects to consider when evaluating feeding habitat:

1)food quantity (how much is available)

2)food quality (how good is what they eat)

-also weather conditions (snow depth, green up, etc)

grasses

horsetails

sedges

clover

dandelion

roots

winter-killed ungulates

Physiological Requirements - (nutrient requirements, metabolic process)

Integral Part of life cycle (dabbling and divind ducks, ospreys, aquatic furbearers)

Defined: Any physical or biological feature or arrangement of features that provide shelter from weather, protenction from disturbance, or concealment from predators.

Thermal Cover

-depending on the species and season, thermal cover is required to reduce heat loss and/or prevent overheating (the need to stay cool).

-morphology and physiology define the limits of thermal stress which may in turn limit the geographical distrubtion of animals

-for many species there is a close relationship between winter cover quality and energy expenditure

-some species are more ependent on thermal cover than others (ie. deer vs moose) (many moose populations are confined to riparian floodplains during winter where they feed on preferred browse species)

Winter Thermal Cover

-provides protection from wind

-usually associated with vertical structure of vegetation

-or could be a topographic feature south-facing slope (solar radiation)

-Gully/Draw in a coulee providnig shrub cover and reduced wind speeds

Snow Interception Cover

-the ability of a forest to intercept snow

-interlocking crowns and canopy closure

High quality thermal cover is typically scarce, therefore winter ranges tend to be a limiting factor for many ungulate populations

-many ungulates seek out favourable conditions to reduce energy loss in winter by selecting habitats that offer both abundant food and thermal cover

Snow Cover

-subnivean layer = below snow

-provides thermal protection for small mammals

-air temperature dirrential between surface of snow and ground surface can be significant (ie. 10 C warmer under 60cm)

SECURITY COVER

-cover in which prey can avoid or reduce the risk of predation

-using cover as concealment, which influences behaviour (ie. vegetation, tree cavity, cave, burrow)

An area of sufficient size to meet a specis needs will vary by

-species

-population

-season

-behaviour

Home Range Sizes

•     Amphibians                                  < 0.1 ha

•     Shrews                                          < 0.1 ha

•     Mice & Voles                                0.1-1.0 ha

•     Squirrels                                       1-10.0 ha

•     Passerine Birds                           1-10.0 ha

•     Cavity Nesting Birds                   1-100 + ha

•     Small carnivores                         10-1,000 + ha

•     Ungulates                                     100-1,000+ ha

•     Large Carnivores                         1,000-10,000 + ha

"An area with the combination of resources and environmental conditions under which an individual can successfully survive and reproduce"

**habitat is species-specific

-it is the sum of specific resources required by an organism

Quality Habitat:

-those areas that provide conditions necessary for relatively successful survival and reproduction over long periods (ie. population persistence)

Critical Habitat:

-often over-used with little meaning

-difficult to define

-SARA (species @ risk act) defines as: "the habitat that is necessary for the survival or recovery of a listed wildlife species and that is identified as teh species' critical habitat in a recovery strategy or in an action plan for the species"

suitability: "the ability of the habitat in its current condition to provide the life requisites (food, cover, nesting, etc) of a species"

capability: "the ability of the habitat, under optimal natural (seral) conditions for a specis to provide its life requisites"

-estimate the value of habitat for wildlife by relating structural and spatial habitat variables to particular seasonal life requirements (food, thermal/security cover, nesting)

examples of habitat variables:

-elevation, aspect or slope

-% shrub cover

-distance to road

-minimum area requirement

-food habits

-competition

-predation

-behaviour

carrying capacity

"the ability for a unit of land to support a specific species for a set of time period"

-biomass production (kg/ha/yr)

What factors determine it?

Climate- regional climates affect vegetation patterns and distribution

Weather- drought, severe storms, deep snow as wel as temperature can cause fluctuations in K

food- quality and quantity as well as availability

Seral (vegetation) succession

Cover - thermal, security, escape terrain

Water

Behaviour (territorial, dominance hierarchies, intraspecific competition)

Habitat Use:

-implies occupation of a given habitat without any consideration of preference or availability

Habitat Preference:

-implies choice of one habitat over another without any regards to avaiability

Habitat Selection:

-implies choice among those habitats available

-compares habitat use to habitat availability

Habitat Requirement:

-implies that the habitat attribute is needed for the species to survive

-however, there is continued debate regarding the term critical and how it is applied to specific habitat attributes

-i.e. implications for endangered species legislation

Example- Habitat Use by Burrowing Owls

-Habitat selection is a scale-dependent (spatial) concept

-Ideally studied in an hierarchical manner

Hierarchical Process of Habitat Selection

First Order Selection: physical or geographic range

Second Order Selection: selection of the home range

Third Order Selection: selection of habitats within the home range

Fourth: selection of food items, nesting sites, etc within habitats

Scale Dependent

-The habitats an animal selects often reflect their relative spatial scale

-the process is hierachical because the decisions made a the 1st and 2nd orders constrain habitat selection patterns att he 3rd and 4th

use- defined as that quantity of resource utilized by an animal or population of animals in a fixed period of time

availability- is the quanitty accessible to the animal or population of animals

-The reasons why a particular resource is selected or avoided is not directly revealed by the estimation of the amount of use or avoidance

-However, if there is demonstrated selection for a particular resource, then further studies can be initiated (to address why)

Selection Indices

-most selected indices are represented as simple ratios of the amount of use and availability

positive selection= greater than 1.0 (use is greater than availability)

negative selection= less than between 1 and 0 (avoiding resource)

no selection(use = availability)= around 1

"Resource Selection Function Models"

-any mathematical function that estimates the probability of use by an animal

-similar to HSI, but with statistical rigour

-RSF models are always estimated directly from data (ie. use/availability)

Benefits of studying multiple spatial scales"

-can provide greater insight into how an animal perceives its own environment

-provides more appropriate habitat management direction

-all scales tend to be important, but larger spatial scales tend to be more important for larger species (ie. carnivores and ungulates)

Pitfalls of Habitat Selection Studies:

-Defining habitat availability arbitrarily

-Whych habitat types do you include?

-What are the implications of including or not including habitats that are seldom used?

Landscape Ecology: The study of the causes behind the formation of patches and the ecological consequences of these spatial patterns on the landscape

Edge Effects: The apparent increase in the abundance of wildlife where two habitat types meet is known as the edge effect

-due to the ability for the area to meet more than one habitat requirement

-increased edge means incerased diversity

-higher quality "game" habitat

1) Natural (inherent) Edges

-ie. grassland and forest edge

-ie. riparian areas

2)Human induced Edges

-natural edges create interspersion of habitat types required by man wildlife species

-ungulates (foragind areas interspersed with cover)

-nesting and feeding areas for some birds (mature forests with natural openings and gaps)

circles have the least amound of edge per unit area

rectangles have more edge to area ratio

irregular shapes have the greatest edge/area ratio (ie. brood production)

interior species require large patches of relatively homogeneous habitat, especially those dependent on late seral forests

Winter wren

Spotted Owl

Woodland Caribou

Sprague's Pipit

Baird's Sparrow

Effects of Patch Size and Shape on Interior Habitat Conditions

-edges can be detrimental to interior species because some edge species are predators

-ie. cowbird (nest parasitism)

-nest predation (raccoon, weasel, chipmunk)

Therefore, biologists also refer to edge effect as: Differential frequencies of nest predation or brood parasitism in areas close to edges.

-Variability within and among species (ie. wide range of responsed to eges)

-need to better understand the mechanisms of edge response for species of concern

-what can we do to reduce the effects of fragmentation?

-better land use planning

-maintain more "large" patches (1000s of ha)

-maintain connectivity along riparian areas, ridge tops to function as corridors

-Foraging Behaviour

-Components of Food

-Feeding Strategies

-Food Value

The acquisition of food plays a critical role in the life of any animal

-most importantly, biologists are interested in

-WHAT animals eat

-WEHN they consume it

-HOW MUCH food they take

-How they ALLOCATE TIME in searching (energetics)

-Foraging studies are important because they show how animals perceive their enviornment and how they actively use their habitats

-Is the choice of food based on relative abundance (availability), nutrient content, or distance to cover?

Often, addressed using Optimal Foraging Theory and foraging models

-which 'prey' they consume

-how much time spent in a 'patch'

-what to eat and how much time to spend in each patch = OFT

What food supply is needed to support a particular population?

Is there enough food to support and conserve an endangered wildlife population? (ie. for translocations and reintroductions)

Wildlife managers need to know:

1)The availability of Food

-not only within particular habitat types, but also the nutrient availability to the animal

2)The nutritional requirements of the animals

ENERGY

-differences in the energy content of different plant and animal foods are due to the differences in their constituent components:

PROTEIN

-nitrogen (N) containing molecules

-animals require 10 essential amino acids (building blocks of proteins)

-carnivores and omnivores cannot synthesize them, therefore must be obtained in diet

-in contrast, ruminants (ungulates) can synthesize many of the essential amino acids through fermentation (microorganisms produce them)

WATER

-is essential for animals because it is involved in:

Hydrolytic reactions

Transport of metabolic products

Excretion

Lubrication of skeletal joints

-Water is obtained from 3 sources:

1)Free water (lakes, streams, ponds)

2)Preformed Water found in food

3)Oxidative or Metabolic water produced in the body from oxidation or organic compounds containing hydrogen

MINERALS

-minerals typically make up less than 5% of body composition but are essential for body function

macro elements (required in large amouts)... Ca, P, Na, Mg

trace elements (required in small amounts)... Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn

VITAMINS

-water soluable: vitamin B,C cannot be stored, therefore need constant supply in diet

-fat soluable: Vitamins A, D, E, K.... can be stored in body

-needed for visual pigments (A), calcium transport and absorption (D), oxidation (E), blood clotting (K)

Gross Energy

-subtract fecal energy loss and get

Digestible Energy

-subtract urinary energy loss and get

Metabolizable energy

-respiration, production, resting and activity, growth and respiration

Energy Requirements are a function of:

Body Size

-small animals have more surface area in proportion to their volume than large animals

-hence, smaller animals lose greater amounts of heat, which must be offset by increased metabolic rate (respiration)

Strategies of Digestion in wild ruminants...

*Anatomy and morphology of GI tract affectsfood habits.. (high fiber vs low fiver feeding strategies)

Cow eats 80% grass, while pronghorn eats 30% grass, 40% forbes, 20% browse..

Due to their smaller body sze, pronghorn consume a diet with relatively higher protein and energy content compared to larger ruminants that can survive on lower quality diets

FOOD VALUE
-usually correlated with nutrient composition and digestibility

-eg. high protein, low fiber foods are often selected by herbivores (if available)

-low value "filler" - low in nutrietional value... short-term feeding

Body Size

Food Value

Sex

Age

Reproduction

Season

Geographic Location (soil conditions, elevation, moisture regime)

Palatability/secondary compounts

Habitat Management Regimes

Food wuantity and quality vary seasonally

-Food supply for herbivores is greatest during the growing period (spring and summer)

-Food supply can also vary annually (seed crops, berry crops, cyclic small mammal populations)

-Protein content of grass and leaves declines from 15-20% in young growth to ~3% in mature flowering grass. Leaves from mature plants decline to about 10%

-Hence, many ungulates (ie. elk) swithch from grazing in the growing season to browsing in the non-growing season

-Precipitation

-Canopy Closure

-Soil Moisture

-Soil Nutrients

-Location on twigs and herbs

-Grazing

-Burning

-Many plants produce chemicals that deter herbivores from feeding on them (ie. their defence mechanism)

tannins - bind proteins, making them indigestible

terpenes- camphor in spruce (ie. young vs mature spruce)= hares feeding

-papyriferic acid in paper birch

-both of these compounds inhibit rumen bacteria and are bitter tasting and volatile.

-Natural

-Prescribed burns

-Increased forage biomass

-variable results depending on plant species

Study on elk forage in banff national park.... found that summer carrying capacity (K) increased more than 3 times from 8 to 28 elk/100kmsq

-spring carrying capacity increased from 13-45

Traditional wildlife management focued on species-specific approach.

However, we cannot measure everything!

Wildlife managers are expected to maintain biodiversity (all living organisms including genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity)

Various Solutions?

-Indicator species...

• 'flagship' species..
• keystone species (worlves, grizz, megafauna)

-Species Guilds..

• groups of sepcies with similar niches

Emerging Approach to maintaining biodiversity - Ecosystem management

"holistic"- considering all the parts of a system

coarse filter- landscape approach to maintaining a variety of habitat types and structural habitat features

-some old forest, some young forest, dead trees, coarse woody debris (CWD)

fine-filter - species-specific management, when required

-rare species (SAR)

-species highly sensitive to human disturbance

Animals

-absolute abundance (ie. census to get density)

-relative abundance (ie. direct counts, sign; #tracks per 100m, # birds seen per hour)

Habitat

-food (vegetation, prey)

-cover (vegetation)

-Water

-space (habitat supply, area requirements, home range)

Food

-% ground cover of plants (transects, plots)

-biomass (clip plots, grass or browse)

-plant density (line intercept)

-prey biomass (carnivores, pop density of prey)

Cover

-Air photos (canopy closure)

-snow interception, canopy closure (spherical densiometer, "moose horn")

-density boards (% visual obstruction)

Random - requires every sampling unit in a population has an equal chance of being selected

stratified random- habitat types

-stratified random sampling

-density estimates

systematic

-selecting samping sites at regular intervals

defined: An area repeatedly travelled by an animal in its normal activites

-Must be large enough to meet biological needs

-if food is scarce, home range tends to be larger

-home ranges of males often larger than females

How do animals use their home range?

-feeding areas

-thermal/security cover areas

-water sources

-space

-travel routes

-mates

-birthing/nesting sites

-Use not randomly, rather core and preferred areas within home range

Defined: Part of a home range that is actively defended against other individuals

-typically smaler than a home range

-males often defend females or nesting sites against other males

-females often defend offspring or food against other females

Most often using radio-telemetry

-transmitter/receiver (VHF and GPS collars)

-triangulation/error polygons

-animal relocated consecutively over a period of time

-should be located during day, night and over seasons to get best sample of behaviours, habitat use and movement patterns.

ESTIMATORS

MCP (Minimum Convex Polygon)

ADV: easy to determne, comparable b/w studies)

DIS: the more locations taken, the bigger the polygon (sample size dependent)

-sensitive to outliers (may include a large amount of the area the animal rarely uses)

-provides little information about how the animal is using its home range.

AK (Adaptive Kernel

CON: more complicated... mathimatical assumptions

PRO: provides greater insight into how home range is being used

-has been compared to other methods and been shown to be the least biased estimator of HR

defined: Movement of an animal away from its natal home range to establish a new home range

-Dispersal is most frequently observed when animals approach sexual maturity

-its is how populations spread

-but can be very risky (increased mortality)

-philopatry- is the opposite... when animals remain in their natal home ranges

Directional movement between two or more distinct home ranges (often seasonal)

WHY migrate?

-variation in resources and conditions across space and time

-high quality resources only available seasonaly

-move to avoid poor environmental conditions (winter)

-move to areas to avoid predation, competition (inter and intra)

MIGRATION AND MANAGEMENT

-migration often poses significant challenges to wildlife managers

-multiple habitats have to be aintained (ie. summer/breeding and wintering areas)

-travel corridors, routes, staging areas, stopover points critical for migration

-often cross political boundaries which requires cooperation and coordinations