Anatomy

Form and structure of organisms

- based on dissestion

Anatomy can easily be defined as "what it looks like"

Gross anatomy:

- visible to the naked eye

(This is what we will concentrate on in this course)

Microscopic anatomy:

- histology

(def: study of tissues)

Systemic anatomy:

-study of anatomy based on systems approach

Examples- gastrointestinal system, cardiovascular sytem

-study of the function of the body and its parts

(systems, organs tissues, cells)

-includes biochemical processes

Physiology can be easily defined as "how it works"

• cannot use terms like upper, lower, behind, etc
  - due to position changes of the patient

• also differences in terms between

- human anatomy (biped (two feet))

-animal anatomy (quadruped (four feet))

Toward the head

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Toward the tail

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Median plane

- through body from head to tail

-divides body into left & right sides

Transverse plane:

-divides body into cranial (toward the head) &

caudal (toward the tail) segments

Close to or toward the median plane (inside)

Ex: The heart is medial to the lungs; it is closer to the median plane than are the lungs.

Away from the medial plane (outside)

-to the side

Ex: The ribs are lateral to the lungs, that is, farther from the median plane.

Toward the back

Ex: The kidneys are dorsal to the intestines; they are closer to the vertebral column

Away from the back, toward the belly.

Ex: The udder is the most ventral part of the body of a cow, the part of the body farthest from the vertebral column.

Toward the body

-usually refers to limbs

Ex: The carpus or knee is proximal to the foot.

Away from the body.

Ex: The hoof is distal to the carpus or knee

Flexor surface of forelimb, distal to carpus.

(front)

Flexor surface of rear limb, distal to hock

(rear)

In human anatomy terms- 

are used to refer to eyes of animals

-front

Human anatomy terms

-are used to refer to eyes of animals

-Back

Toward the nose

-refers to the head

Microscopic anatomy

4 main groups of tissues:

-epithelial

-connective

-muscle

-nervous

Location:

-covers internal & external surfaces of the body

internal surfaces:

-inner lining of heart & blood vessels - endothelium

-inner lining of many tubular organs

external surfaces:

-skin (epidermis)

-Protection, secretion, excretion & absorbtion

Protection example: skin protects body from dehydration, microbes, etc.

Secretion: passage of useful product from cell

-a substance that has been synthesized in the cell, and affects another part of the body

Ex: saliva

Excretion: passage of waste product from cell

Ex: sweat

Absorption: taking a substance into the cell

Ex: gastrointestinal mucosa absorbs nutrients

-By shape of cells:

squamous, cubodial, columnar

-By number of layers of cells:

simple, stratified, pseudostratified

-Flat, plate-like

-Looks like a fried egg

"Squama" - latin - the scale of a fish or serpent

-Tall and cylindracal

-Like cells in a honeycomb

-One layer deep

-Good for absorption

-Not good for protection (wear & tear)

Ex: endotheium lining blood vessels

-More than one layer deep

-Good for wear & tear

Ex: skin

-Single layer of columnar cells that are different heights

-Looks like more than one layer

Ex: lining of trachea

Cell shape & layers:

-simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar

-stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar

-pseudostratified

Locations/examples:

- lining blood vessels

-lining body cavities

- Reduces friction, specialized for diffusion

Locations/examples:

-glands (saliva, mucus)

- kidney tubules

-Specialized for diffusion, secretion

Locations/examples:

- digestive tract, oviducts, glands

- Often ciliated

- Secretion, movement of material (cilia)

Locations/examples:

-line mouth, esophagus

-outer layer of sin

-Specialized for wear & tear, protection

-Transitional epithelium

Location/examples:

- urinary tract

-Stretches (thick to thin)

- Very tough

Location/examples:

- pharynx

- salivary ducts

Location/examples:

-line trachea

-Are considered to be epithelial tissue (are lined by epithelial cells)

- Specialized for:

secretion & excretion

Expel useful product from cell

Ex: hormones

Expel waste product from cell

Ex: sweat

Based on whether or not the glands have ducts

Exocrine glands:

-do have ducts

Endocrine glands:

- do NOT have have ducts

-Do have ducts

-Secretions emptied into ducts (little passageways) which carry the secretion to a specific epithelial surface

-are scattered

-Are scattered through many systems

Ex: sweat, pancreatic, salivary, mammary, etc.

(Will be studied with their systems)

-Do NOT have ducts

- Secretions are emptied across the cell membrane

directly into blood or intercellular fluid

-produce hormones

Ex: pituitary, adrenalm thyroid, etc.

(Will be studied seperately)

-Supporting tissue

-Found throughout the body

Functions:

-connect & anchor body parts together

-give form & support to the body

-protection & leverage

-involved in healing

-Elastic tissue

-Collagenous tissue

(3 types: dense regular, dense irregular, areolar)

-Reticular tissue

-Adipose tisse

-Cartilage

-Blood

-Bone

-Strong, kinked

-Yellow in color

-Can stretch then regain original shape

Locations/examples:

-ligamentum nuchae

-elastic arteries

-White fibrous tissue which is protein in nature & found throughout the body

-inelastic, very strong

-long fibers of collagen, which are produced by fibroblasts/fibrocytes

-Dense regular connective tissue

-Dense irregular connective tissue

-Areolar

-Fibers arranged in parallel bundles

-arrangement does not stretch

-tightly packed

Ex: tendons, ligaments

-Fibers arranged at random, form a mat

-Go in all directions

-Flexible arrangement

Ex: skin (dermis)

-Loose connective tissue

-Provide protection, flexibility, cushioning

Locations/examples:

-around blood vessels

-subcutaneous

Subcutaneous areolar tissue:

-permits skin to slide over muscles for movement

-allow for SQ fluids

Sub=under

Cutaneous=skin

-Very fine, net-like fibers

-small branching fibers

Location/examples:

Framework in:

-lymph nodes

-endocrine organs

def.: Endocrine- of, relating to, or denoting glands that secrete hormones or other products directly into the blood

-Fat tissues

-Connectivity tissue cells take up fat for storage

(as inclusions)

-Cell becomes spherical

(nucleus flattened)

-Gristle

-Harder than fibrous tissue

-Softer than bone

Composition:

-chondrocytes (cartilage cells)

-matrix (non-living substance between cells)

(def: chondro- cartilage)

-General term

-refers to non-living substance between cells (intercellular)

-amorphous (shapeless)

-organic (protein)

-gives cartilage its consistency

-cells are present in the matrix

-fibers may be present

Think of matrix as the mortar between bricks on a house

-Hyaline cartilage

-Elastic cartilage

-Fibrocartilage

-Glass-like, smooth, glistening

-Firm but flexible

-Cells in matrix (few or no fibers)

Locations/examples:

-Ends of long bones (in joints)

-Epiphyses (growth plates of bones)

-Nose, trachea

Elastic Cartilage

-Cells & elastic fibers in martix

Locations/examples:

- external ear

-epiglottis

-Cells, collagenous fibers, matrix

-Semi-elastic, very strong

Location/example:

-intervertebral discs

-skeleton, very hard, rigid

-composed of cells & calcified organic matrix

Types of bone tissue:

-cancellous bone

-compact bone

-Marrow (inside the bone)

-Sponge-like network

-arranged with spaces but very hard

Locations/examples:

-at ends of long bones

-in ribs

-hard & dense

Location:

-shafts of long bones

-inside the bone

-medullary cavity

-located in middle of long bones

-contains marrow:

-blood formation & fat storage

-Vascular tissue

-considered to be a type of connective or supportive tissue

-consists of:

liquid matrix, cells, proteins, other

-Water:

suspends other constituents:

-plasma

-serum

-blood cells:

-RBCs (red blood cells)

-WBCs (white blood cells)

-platelets

-Fluid of unclotted blood

-contains clotting factors

-lavender top tube

-P= "plus" clotting factors

-Fluid of clotted blood

-does not contain clotting factors

-red top tube

-S='sans" clotting factors

-Red blood cells

-also known as erythrocytes

-non-nucleated in mammals

-nucleated in avians

-hemoglobin

-white blood cells

-also known as leukocytes

-"leukos" = white

-"alba" = white

-Typically characterized as granulocytes or agranulocytes

-Granulocytes have granules

-Agranulocytes have an apparent absence of granules

-Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils are types of granulocytes

-Lymphocytes, monocytes are types of agranulocytes
(All are still WBCs) 

-also known as thrombocytes

-smaller than RBCs

-non-nucleated

-help blood clot

-Albumins (water soluble):

-help maintain osmotic pressure of blood

-Globulins (insoluble in water):

-antibodies, carrier proteins, clotting factors, etc.

-Electrolytes:

Na (sodium), Cl (chlorine), K (potassium), etc.

-O2, CO2

-nutrients

-wastes

-abbrv. muscle = mm

-muscle cells are called muscle fibers

-function: contraction

Three types of muscle tissue:

-Skeletal muscle

-Cardiac muscle

-Smooth muscle

- attaches to and moves the skeleton

-striated, voluntary

Location:

-most of our muscles (flesh)

- heart: pumps blood

- striated, involuntary

Locations:

-Heart

-Great vessels

-non-striated, involuntary

Locations:

-lining wall of internal organs: intestines

-iris, skin

-around vessels, bronchioles

-abbrv. nerve = nn

Functions:

-receives stimuli

-transmits impulses: 

-to muscles, glands, other nerve cells

-Neuron

-Myelin Sheath

-node of Ranvier

-Nerve cell:

-nerve cell body: gray in color, is nucleated

-processes or nerve fibers:

-dendrites: short fibers

-axons: long fibers

-An individual nerve is made up of thousands of nerve fibers, axons

Example:

Sciatic nerve

-protective, insulating cover on some nerve axons

-white in color

-composed of Schwann cells

Schwann cells:

fatty cells wrapped around the axon, spiral fashion. Like a rolled up crepe

-junctions between Schwann cells along the axon

-unmyelinated parts of the axon

-a nerve impulse "jumps" from node to node along a myelinated axon

-speed of conduction is much faster