3 Ways of Understanding Brain Function

1. Observe patients w brain lesions

2. Brain stimulation (electric/magnetic)

3. Structural/Functional neuroimaging

 Brain Mapping

Stimulate area of brain, 

observe effect

 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 

(TMS)

Use magnets to disrupt normal activity (fake lesion) and study effects

 2 Ways of Structural Neuroimaging

1. CT (Computer Tomography)

2. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

 Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(MRI)

Magnetic fields & radio waves create image of brain structure.

High quality images.

 Computed Tomography

(CT/CAT)

Sophisticated X Ray tech. to study structure

(old fashioned)

 3 Ways of Functional Neuroimaging

1. Electroencephalogram (EEG)

2. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

3. Functional MRI (fMRI)

 Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Functional Neuroimaging, 

Measures electrical activity of brain surface

Detect fast responses.

 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Inject radioactive subs. in bloodstream,

measures brain activity by blood flow, glucose etc. during tasks

 Functional MRI (fMRI)

Use magnetic field and radio waves to detect brain activity by oxygen level (blood oxygenation)

 Corpus callosum

Neural fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain, pass info. between them. 

 Cerebrum

 Handles sensory info. processing

4 Ways to Study the Brain 

1. Brain Mapping

2. TMS (Transcranial Magnetic St.)

3. Structural Neuroimaging

4. Functional Neuroimaging

Monoamines

(neurotransmitters)

1. Epinephrine (energy)

2. Norepinephrine (arousal, vigilance)

3. Serotonin (emotion, impulsiveness, dreams)

4. Dopamine (reward/motivation, motor control)

Acetylcholine

(neurotransmitter)

Motor muscle control, learning, sleeping, memory, dreaming

Amino Acids

(neurotransmitters)

1. GABA (inhibits neural firing, anciety reduction, alcohol intoxication)

2. Glutamate (enhance action potential, learning and memory) 

 Peptides 

(neurotransmitters)

1. Endorphins (pain reduction, reward)

2. Substance P (pain perception, mood, anxiety)

1. Agonists

2. Antagonists

1. Drugs - enhance neurotransmitter action

2. Drugs - inhibit neurotransmitter action

Hypothalamus

Regulates homeostasis, hunger,

aggression, lust

Thalamus

Sensory gateway to brain, receives sensory info. and relays to brain. 

Hippocampus

Memory formation. Can grow larger.

Amygdala

Emotional response / memory,

threat detection (epinephrine, anxiety)

Basal Ganglia

Planning & producing movement

Occipital Lobes

Visual

Primary Visual Cortex

Color, spatial, etc.

Parietal Lobes

Touch

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Visualize spacial layout of envmt.

Temporal Lobes

Auditory

Primary Auditory Cortex

Memory, facial recognition (fusiform face area)

Contains hippocampus & amygdala

Frontal Lobes

Executive function

Primary Motor Cortex

Movement and high level psychological process

Contains Broca's Area (speech)

Prefrontal Cortex

Esp. in Humans

Attention, maintaining focus, working memory, decision making, personality, empathy

Pineal Gland

Bodily rhythms

Hypothalamus (Gland)

Motivation, body functions

Pituitary Gland

Hormone release

Thyroid Gland

Energy burning

Parathyroid Gland

Calcium levels

Thymus Gland

Immune system

Adrenal Gland

Immune system

Pancreas (Gland)

Immune system

Ovary/Testes (Glands)

Reproduction

Major Endocrine Glands

1. Pineal, 2. Hypothalamus, 3. Pituitary, 4. Thyroid, 5. Parathyroid, 6. Thymus, 7. Adrenal, 8. Pancreas, 9. Ovary/Testes

Data Collection Methods

1. Observation, 2. Self Report, 3. Response Performance, 4. Physiological Assessment

Observation

Pro: see what you want to observe

Con: participant reactivity/Hawthorne effect, observer bias/expectancy

Self Report

Pro: Direct, cheap, easy

Con: Not useful w/ animals, people cannot explain everything, do not want to tell

Response Performance

Measures reaction time, accuracy, judgment

Pro: less reactive than self report

Con: data cannot generalize

Physiological Assessment

e.g. fMRI, PET, etc.

Pro: Link between biology and behavior

Con: Expensive, more bio than psych

Types of Studies

1. Descriptive: just describe variable/condition

2. Correlational: relationship betw. 2 variables

3. Experimental: manipulate variables/condition

Correlational Studies

Pro/Con

Pro: Data already available, can correlate anything

Con: Not causal, could have 3rd variable, directionality problem

Experimental Studies 

Pro/Con

Pro: Can study causal relationship between var.

Con: external validity 

Confound

Experimental Studies - affects Dep.Var, unintentionally vary between conditions in study

Central Tendency

Mean Median Mode

States of Consciousness

1. Waking, 2. Sleep/Dream, 3. Hypnosis, 4. Meditation, 5. Drug-altered states

Reticular Formation

Nerve bundle in brain stem. Dreams, alertness, sleep

Sleep Function

1. Conserve energy

2. Restoration (remove waste, circulate cerebrospinal fluid)

REM Sleep

Returned limbic (brain) activity, continued lack of activity in frontal cortex, REM, dreaming, paralysis of motor systems

Meditation

Increased activiation in hippocampus and frontal cortex. 

Manifest / Latent Content

M: actual content

L: what the dream is trying to hide from real life 

Hypnosis

Deep relaxation, susceptible to suggestion, changes in memory, motivation and self control. Treatment of pain

Cannot recreate events. Can form false memory

Interpreter

Left hemisphere tries to explain events/actions even where not applicable.

Leads ppl. to look for nonexistent clues

Subliminal Perception

Continuing to process sensory info. without conscious awareness

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Signals pineal gland for melatonin, affects sleep cycle

Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Throat closes when asleep, stops breathing, person awakes freq.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Theory for dreams: brain tries to make sense of random brain activity during sleep, so connects activity with stored memories to form dreams

Fluid Intelligence

Info. processing in new/complex situations. 

Reasoning, flexible/quick thinking

"G"

Spearman's "G": belief that one factor underlies intelligence.

Cattell: belief that "G" contains Fluid and Crystallized intelligence.

Multiple Intelligences

Gardner's theory: there are diff. types of intelligences independent from each other

WAIS - IV

Verbal Comprehension: vocab., analogies, info.

Perception Reasoning: block design, puzzles

Working Memory: digits, arithmetic

Processing Speed: reaction time, inspection time

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Analytical, Creative, Practical. 

A: comparing/analyzing, IQ

C: inventing/designing solutions

P: adapting to context

Intelligence Quotient

(Mental Age / Chrono.Age) * 100

IQ Differences

50% due to genetics

Some variation due to envmt.

Racial disparity caused by biased tests, stereotype threat

Classical / Operant Conditioning

C: neutral stimulus + stimulus = reaction

O: consequence determines future behavior

Law of Effect

Thorndike: behavior leads to good result, makes it more likely to repeat. vice versa.

Reinforcer

Positive stimulus that rewards a response, makes response/action more likely to repeat

Shaping

Reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior

Primary / Secondary Reinforcers

Primary: biological needs - food, water

Secondary: money, compliments etc.

Positive / Negative Reinforcement

Positive: Giving pleasant stimulus to encourage

Negative: Removing negative stimulus to encourage

Positive / Negative Punishment

Positive: giving bad stimulus to discourage

Negative: removing good stimulus to discourage 

Continuous / Partial Reinforcement

C: reinforce everytime behavior occurs

P: behavior reinforced intermittently (more effective)

Ratio / Interval / Fixed / Variable

Schedule

R: based on times, e.g. every 5th time

I: based on time, e.g. every hour

F: based on freq., e.g. every 10 times

V: at random, e.g. salesperson commission

Partial-Reinforcement Extinction Effect

More persistence in behavior under partial than continuous reinforcement

Cognitive Map

Visual/spatial mental map representing an environment.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement

Vicarious Leaning

Learning consequences of action by seeing others punished/rewarded for it

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that activate when 1) watching sb do an action, and 2) when doing same action

Sensitization

Increase in behavioral response after exposure to threatening stimulus

Long Term Potentiation

(LTP)

Strengthening synaptic connection, make postsynaptic neurons more easily connected

NMDA

Improves learning

Unconditioned Response

Response that doesn't need to be learned, natural e.g. salivation at food

Conditioned Response

Same as UR, e.g. salivation, but conditioned to do this to Conditioned Stimulus.

Weaker than the UR

Conditioned Stimulus

Stimulus that elicits response after conditioning, neutral stimulus e.g. metronome

Unconditioned Stimulus

Stimulus that elicits Unconditioned Response without learning, e.g. food (causes UR salivation)

Acquisition

Formation of association between Conditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus

(e.g. metronome -> food)

Rescoria-Wagner Model 

Strength of CS - US association depends on how surprising the US is.