Term
| Cells adapt to different __________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or False: In cell injury, degenerative changes lead to both reversible and irreversible damage. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Cell injury with reversible damage affects a cell's __________.
Cell injury with irreversible damage leads to __________ and __________ __________. |
|
Definition
1) Physiology
2) Necrosis
3) Tissue dissolution |
|
|
Term
| Cells that adapt from injury transition toward what? |
|
Definition
| 1) A neoplastic transformation |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 detrimental outcomes associated with atrophy? |
|
Definition
1) Decreased cell size
2) Organelles
3) Energy requirement |
|
|
Term
| True or False: Cell atrophy is completely reversible. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: Cell atrophy can be reversible or irreversible depending on the insult. |
|
|
Term
| What are 5 types of cell atrophy? |
|
Definition
1) Disuse
2) Menopause
3) Ischemia
4) Inflammation
5) Glandular |
|
|
Term
| What are the causes of disuse atrophy? |
|
Definition
1) A plaster cast
2) Denervation (interruption of nerve connection to an organ or part) |
|
|
Term
| What are the causes of menopause atrophy? |
|
Definition
| 1) Lack of endocrine stimulation |
|
|
Term
| What are the causes of ischemia atrophy? |
|
Definition
1) Decreased blood flow
2) Reduced oxygenation
3) Tissue damaged
4) Delayed wound healing |
|
|
Term
| What are the causes of inflammation atrophy? |
|
Definition
| 1) Stomach ulcers (H pylori) in which stomach lining cells die (increases risk of acquiring stomach cancer) |
|
|
Term
| What are the causes of glandular atrophy? |
|
Definition
1) Atrophic regions of prostate
2) Increased risk of prostatic carcinoma |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1) The increase in volume of an organ or tissue due to enlargement of component cells. |
|
|
Term
| What are examples of physiologic hypertrophy? |
|
Definition
1) During exercise (weight lifting)
2) Breast hypertrophy (during pregnancy) |
|
|
Term
| What is pathologic hypertrophy? |
|
Definition
| 1) The abnormal increase in the volume of an organ or tissue due to enlargement of component cells; leads to disease. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 types of pathologic hypertrophy? |
|
Definition
1) Compensatory
2) Adaptive
3) Precancerous |
|
|
Term
| What is an example of compensatory pathologic hypertrophy? |
|
Definition
| 1) A liver resection or kidney nephrectomy (often due to size) |
|
|
Term
| What is an example of adaptive pathologic hypertrophy? |
|
Definition
| 1) Hypertension (high blood pressure) leading to heart failure |
|
|
Term
| What is an example of precancerous pathologic hypertrophy? |
|
Definition
| 1) Prostatic carcinomas arise in glands with preceding hypertrophy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1) The temporary increase of the cell number of an organ or tissue containing cells capable of mitotic division. |
|
|
Term
| True or False: Hyperplasia is terminally differentiated. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: Hyperplasia is not terminally differentiated. |
|
|
Term
| What are 3 examples of terminally differentiated tissues? |
|
Definition
1) Neural
2) Skeletal
3) Cardiac |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 types of hyperplasia? |
|
Definition
1) Physiological
2) Non-physiological |
|
|
Term
| What is an example of physiological hyperplasia? |
|
Definition
| 1) Natural hormonal stimulation (e.g., during a woman's menstrual cycle) |
|
|
Term
| What is an example of non-physiological hyperplasia? |
|
Definition
| 1) Abnormal hormonal stimulation (e.g., excess estrogen leading to endometrial carcinoma) |
|
|
Term
| True or False: Hyperplasia gives way to cancer. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or False: Hyperplasia and hypertrophy cannot co-exist. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: Hyperplasia and hypertrophy can co-exist when triggered by similar mechanisms. |
|
|
Term
| What are 2 triggers that will cause hypertrophy and hyperplasia simultaneously? |
|
Definition
1) A pregnant uterus (estrogen and progesterone stimulation)
2) Reproductive cycling (increases number and size of endometrial and uterine stromal cells) |
|
|
Term
| A pregnant uterus causes what hormones to be stimulated? |
|
Definition
1) Estrogen
2) Progesterone |
|
|
Term
| Reproductive cycling causes an increase in number and size of what cells? |
|
Definition
1) Endometrial cells
2) Uterine stromal cells |
|
|
Term
| What are 6 triggers that will constantly cause hypertrophy and hyperplaisa to co-exist? |
|
Definition
1) Early menarche
2) Late menopause
3) Nulliparity with continous menses
4) Irregular ovulation cycles
5) ERT during menopause
6) Tamoxifen as an anti-estrogen for breast cancer |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1) Conversion of one adult differentiated cell type to another in response to chronic irritation, inflammation, and wound healing. |
|
|
Term
| What are 3 causes of metaplasia? |
|
Definition
1) Chronic irritation
2) Inflammation
3) Wound healing |
|
|
Term
| What is another name for metaplasia? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or False: Metaplsia causes no risk of cancer. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: Metaplasia disposes cells to cancerous transformation |
|
|
Term
| What is an example of metaplasia? |
|
Definition
| 1) Ciliated columnal epithelium being replaced by stratified squamous epithelium in the lining of a smoker's trachea. |
|
|
Term
| Where is metaplasia very likely to occur (example)? |
|
Definition
| 1) Within a smoker's trachea |
|
|
Term
| True or False: The ciliated squamous epithelium can transition to metaplastic squamous carcinoma. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What occurs in Barrett's Esophagus? |
|
Definition
| 1) Residual squamous mucosa (normal) is replaced by secretory metaplastic cells from the stomach wall as a result of acid reflux. |
|
|
Term
| In Barrett's Esophagus squamous mucosa cells are replaced by what new cells from what location? What is the primary cause for this change? |
|
Definition
1) Secretory metaplastic cells
2) Stomach wall
3) Acid reflux |
|
|
Term
| Barrett's Esophagus increases the risk of what? |
|
Definition
| 1) Ulcerated adenocarcinoma |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1) Deranged cell growth resulting in atypical cells of various shapes and sizes. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 causes of dysplasia? |
|
Definition
1) Chronic irritation
2) Inflammation |
|
|
Term
| True or False: Dysplasia is adaptive and reversible when insult is removed, and it does not increase cancer risk. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: Dysplasia is adaptive and reversible when the insult is removed, but it CAN increase cancer risk. |
|
|
Term
| Dysplasia is adaptive and reversible under what conditions? |
|
Definition
| 1) When the insult is removed. |
|
|
Term
| Uterine / endometrial dysplasia often leads to what condition? |
|
Definition
| 1) Endometrial carcinoma (ERT) |
|
|
Term
| What is a common cause of cervical cancer (HPV)? |
|
Definition
| 1) Cervical high grade intraepithelial squamous neoplasia |
|
|
Term
| True or False: Epithelium is a protective cell layer with slow turnover. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: Epithelium is a protective cell layer with RAPID turnover |
|
|
Term
| In the uterine cervix, new cells are replaced by the dividing stem cell population in what cell layer? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the skin, what layer separates the epithelium from connective tissue? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The lining of the __________ in the __________ __________ reveals the continuity between normal, dysplatic, and adenocarcinoma tissue. |
|
Definition
1) Ileum
2) Small intestine |
|
|
Term
| The lining of the ileum in the small intestine reveals the continuity between what 3 tissue layers? |
|
Definition
1) Normal
2) Dysplastic
3) Adenocarcinoma |
|
|
Term
| Cancers develop progressively through what type of process? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Between two extremes of fully normal and highly malignant tissue lies a broad spectrum of what type of tissues? |
|
Definition
| 1) Tissues of an intermediate apperance |
|
|
Term
| Cellular transformation involves a gradual transition away from normal behavior towards what types of behaviors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What indicates whether a stretch of chromatin is treated by the cell? |
|
Definition
| 1) Normal modification of histone tails |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 causes of transcriptional repression? |
|
Definition
1) DNA methylation
2) Histone deacetylation |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 causes of transcriptional activation? |
|
Definition
1) Histone acetylation
2) DNA demethylation |
|
|
Term
| True or False: DNA acetylation is an important regulator of gene transcription. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: DNA METHYLATION is an important regulator of gene transcription |
|
|
Term
| Alterations in __________ __________ are common in a variety of tumors as well as in development. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What genes are involved with DNA methylation? |
|
Definition
1) Cell cycle regulation
2) p16
3) p15
4) Rb
5) BRCA1
6) MGMT
7) DAPK
8) TMS1 |
|
|
Term
| What genes are involved in cell cycle regulation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What genes are associated with DNA repair? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What genes are associated with apoptosis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1) Molecules with incomplete electron shells which are able to establish chain reactions |
|
|
Term
| What are the negative effects of free-radicals? |
|
Definition
1) Damage membranes
2) Cross-link proteins |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 types of free radicals? |
|
Definition
1) Endogenous
2) Exogenous |
|
|
Term
| What is the source of endogenous free radicals? |
|
Definition
| 1) Oxygen in hyperoxide enviornments |
|
|
Term
| What is the source of exogenous free radicals? |
|
Definition
1) Tobacco smoke
2) Organic solvents
3) Pesticides
4) UV radiation |
|
|
Term
| UV photons cause spectrum of what mutations? Where are they found? |
|
Definition
1) p53 dimers
2) DNA of keratoses and basal cell carcinomas of the skin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or False: CC dimers are usually repaired. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: TT dimers are usually repaired, unless there is a mutation in the repair mechanism |
|
|
Term
| What causes a pyrimidine dimer to become deaminated? |
|
Definition
| 1) Any cytosine involved in cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers; this is because a C to T transition is induced which is not often repaired. |
|
|
Term
| What is responsible for shielding keratinoctye nuclei from UV radiation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1) Vesicles carrying melanin pigments from keratinocytes to melanocytes located in the basal layers of the epidermis. |
|
|
Term
| Melanosomes carry melanin pigment from keratinocytes to melanocytes in what layers of the epidermis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| __________ __________ shield keratinocyte nuclei from UVB by acting as what? |
|
Definition
1) Pigment parasols
2) Anti-oxidant |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1) Cell adaptation or apoptosis |
|
|
Term
| Cell adaptation hypoxia leads to what results? |
|
Definition
| 1) Expression of the HIF-1a and HIF-1b transcription factors |
|
|
Term
| What genes are activated through the expression of HIF-1a and HIF-1b? |
|
Definition
Those encoding for:
1) Glycolytic enzymes (for anaerobic metabolism)
2) VEGF (for angiogenesis)
3) Inducible nitric oxide synthase and heme oxygenase-1 (for production of vasodilators) |
|
|
Term
| What is the expression of glycolytic enzymes for? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) for? |
|
Definition
| 1) Angiogensis (growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones) |
|
|
Term
| What is the expression of nitric oxide synthase and heme oxygenase-1 for? |
|
Definition
| 1) Production of vasodilators |
|
|
Term
| The HIF-1a and HIF-1b activate genes which perform what functions? |
|
Definition
1) Help cells survive at low oxygen levels
2) Act to restore normal oxygen levels |
|
|
Term
| What hypoxia is commonly associated with tumors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| HIF-1a expression is independently associated with a poor prognosis in what type of disease? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Intratumoral hypoxia is often most resistant to what therapies? |
|
Definition
1) Chemotherapy
2) Radiation therapy |
|
|
Term
| What is one reason that intratumoral hypoxia is resistant to certain therapies, such as chemo and radiation therapy? |
|
Definition
| 1) Intratumoral hypoxia is one which may be cycling very slowly or quiescent, and as a result may not be sensitive to agents which are most active in proliferating cells |
|
|
Term
| In a cross section of a poorly vascularized section of tumor tissue, oxygenated areas appear __________ and __________ while hypoxic areas stain __________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or False: Cancer cells are not vulnerable to extremes of temperature. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: Cancer cells ARE vulnerable to extremes of temperature. |
|
|
Term
| In contrast to p53-deficient tumor cells, what type of cells survive much higher doses of drug 5-fluorouracil when incubated at __________ rather than 37 degrees Celsius? |
|
Definition
1) p53 wild-type
2) 28 degrees |
|
|
Term
| High heat (__________) and UV exposure causes tumor cells to form what on the surface of degenerated cells? What does the body do in response to this? |
|
Definition
1) Hyperthermia
2) Heat shock proteins
3) The body's immune system detects proteins TSTAs triggering the immune system to fight cancer cells |
|
|
Term
| Extensive tissue injury and disruption to neural and cardiac impulses depends on what factors? |
|
Definition
1) Type and path of current
2) Duration of exposure |
|
|
Term
| True or False: Wet skin is more resistant than thick dry skin to electrical impulses. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: Thick dry skin is more resistant than wet skin |
|
|
Term
| True or False: The greater the skin resistance, the lower the local skin burn. |
|
Definition
| 1) False: The greater the skin resistance, the GREATER the local skin burn |
|
|
Term
| What is the order of (greatest to least) resistance to electrical current, beginning with bone and ending with the nerves? |
|
Definition
| 1) Bone > Fat > Tendon > Skin > Muscle > Blood > Nerves |
|
|
Term
| A low dose of alternating electric current has shown efficacy for what type of cancer? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Free radical damages leads to the arrest of a cell at what stages? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In __________ __________ patients cannot repair damage and they often contract skin cancer. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A low dose of ionizing radiation is __________ while a high dose is __________. |
|
Definition
1) Diagnostic
2) Therapeutic |
|
|
Term
| What are particulates in ionizing radiation? |
|
Definition
| 1) Tiny fast-moving particles with both energy and mass |
|
|
Term
| How are particulates produced? |
|
Definition
| 1) Through disintegration of an unstable atom |
|
|
Term
| What is the source of alpha particles? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which particles' effects are at the skin level unless penetration causing lung cancer? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which particles travel short distances due to large mass? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which particles are cannot penetrate the skin or a piece of paper? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the source of beta particles> |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which particles are taken up by the thyroid gland due to penetrating effects? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which particles are fast moving electrons? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which particles can travel far, and are more penetrating? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Early exposure to vinyl chloride causes what to occur? |
|
Definition
1) Adaptive changes in body cells
2) Injury
3) Cancer |
|
|
Term
| Free radical damage produced from CCl3 is most commonly found where? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Deficiency of folic acid leads to what negative consequence? |
|
Definition
| 1) Promotion of colon cancer due to abnormal incorporation of uracil into DNA |
|
|
Term
| Deficiency of Vitamin C leads to what results? |
|
Definition
| 1) Protection against oxidative damage |
|
|
Term
| Deficiency of Vitamin D leads to what negative consequence? |
|
Definition
| 1) The increased risk of cancer formation |
|
|
Term
| The quality and quantity of dietary fat contributes to the increased risk of what cancer? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hyperglycemia can lead to what negative consequence? |
|
Definition
| 1) An abnormal glucose metabolism which can increase a cancer risk in men and women |
|
|
Term
| The accumulation of fatty component in adipose tissues contributes to what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 primary causes of gallbladder carcinoma? |
|
Definition
1) Accumulation of bile obstruction pigments
2) Inflammation |
|
|
Term
| What is coal dust responsible for? |
|
Definition
1) Black lung
2) Lung cancer |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 stages of the wound healing process? |
|
Definition
1) Inflammatory (first few days)
2) Proliferative (2-3 days - 3 weeks)
3) Remodeling (begins around 3 weeks after initial injury) |
|
|
Term
| What is Stage 1 of the wound healing process? How long does it take to occur? What occurs during this stage? |
|
Definition
1) Inflammatory
2) Occurs within the first few days
3) Immediate hemostasis
4) Vascular dilation
5) Increase capillary permeability
6) Cellular infiltration (WBCs and phagocytes release growth factors) |
|
|
Term
| What is Stage 2 of the wound healing process? How long does it take to occur? What occurs during this stage? |
|
Definition
1) Proliferative
2) Occurs within 2-3 days and lasts up to 3 weeks
3) Collagen, angiogensis, and cellular proliferation
4) Edema diminishes
5) Scar tissue laid down |
|
|
Term
| What is Stage 3 of the wound healing process? How long does it take to occur? What occurs during this stage? |
|
Definition
1) Remodeling
2) Begins around 3 weeks after initial injury
3) Wound increases in tensile strength |
|
|
Term
| What factors are needed for effective wound healing? |
|
Definition
1) Methionine
2) Carbohydrates
3) Fats
4) Vitamins A, B, C and K
5) Minerals
6) Blood and nutrients |
|
|
Term
| What is methionine vital for? |
|
Definition
| 1) Cofactor in collagen synthesis |
|
|
Term
| What are carbs vital for? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1) Cell membrane synthesis |
|
|
Term
| What is Vitamin A vital for? |
|
Definition
1) Epithelialization
2) Collagen synthesis |
|
|
Term
| What is Vitamin C vital for? |
|
Definition
1) Collagen synthesis
2) Protein synthesis |
|
|
Term
| What is Vitamin B vital for? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are minerals vital for? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are blood and nutrients vital for? |
|
Definition
1) Adequate blood flow
2) Oxygen delivery
3) Appropriate inflammatory and immune response |
|
|
Term
| Acute inflammation is __________ while chronic inflammation is __________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What 4 cell types are involved in acute inflammation |
|
Definition
1) Neutrophils
2) Basophils
3) Eosinophils
4) Mononuclear cells |
|
|
Term
| What is the role of neutrophils? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the role of basophils |
|
Definition
| 1) Contain heparin and histamines |
|
|
Term
| What is the role of eosinophils? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the role of mononuclear cells? |
|
Definition
| 1) Produce monocytes and macrophages |
|
|
Term
| What 4 cell types are involved in chronic inflammation? |
|
Definition
1) Monocytes and macrophages
2) Lymphocytes
3) Fibroblasts
4) Plasma cells |
|
|
Term
| What is the primary cause of the halt of an acute inflammation? |
|
Definition
| 1) a programmed switch initiating a termination sequence |
|
|
Term
| What are the roles of resolvins and protectins? |
|
Definition
| 1) Help to initiate apoptosis of neutrophils which are then phagocytosed by macrophages |
|
|
Term
| What do macrophages secrete? What is the result of this secretion? |
|
Definition
1) TGF beta and anti-inflammatory cytokines
2) Force macrophages to leave through lymphatics |
|
|
