Term
| Lactic acid and milk products |
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Definition
- Several bacteria species produce this acid when they ferment lactose (milk sugar) and whey is the liquid that remains
- Used as a flavoring and preservative agent in many foods |
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Term
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Definition
- When the yeasts change the pyruvic acid into carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol
- Carried out by bacteria, but for alcohol yeast is used
- Occurs in anaerobic environment (no oxygen present) |
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Term
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Definition
- Grapes crushed to release juice
- Yeast ferment the simple sugars in the must for several days
- Wine is aged
- Alcoholic content 10%- 18% (Yeast will die if too much alcohol)
- Red wines-grape skins left in the must prior to fermentation
- Dry wines (no sugar left)
- Champagnes- fermentation continues in bottle |
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Term
| Beer and Ales Fermentation |
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Definition
- Harder to make than wine because they have grain
- Germination of cereal grains (barley, wheat, rice) results in malt
- Enzymes produced during germination break down the complex starches (mashing)
- Hops (flowers of a plant) added to worth for flavor and antimicrobial activity
- Yeast added which ferments simple sugars in the malt to produce ethanol
- Pathogens can’t grow in alcohol
- Aging or laagering
- Addition of CO2, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
- Rice Wine: made from rice. The mold is added to the steamed rice. Later, yeast is added and the rice is allowed to ferment
- More like a BEER even though called Wine because the Mold is required to break down the complex starch in the rice (and rice is a grain just like beer) |
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Term
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Definition
- Start with a fermented product made from rye, corn, barley, potatoes, wine, etc.
- Usually use a sour mash- lactic acid bacteria fermentation produces acid and lowers pH
- Boil to remove water and increase alcohol content
o Brandy: wine
o Rye: Rye grain
o Bourbon: corn
o Scotch: barley
o Vodka: Grain (rye, wheat), potatoes, molasses
- Have to be careful because the chemicals can have bad side- effects |
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Term
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Definition
- Through fermentation by the souring of wine
- The flavor of wine vinegar is determined by compounds present in the original wine as well as products of bacterial growth |
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Term
| Transcription vs. Translation |
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Definition
- Transcription is when the RNA polymerase moves along the template strand of the DNA molecule and sythesizes a complementary molecule of RNA useing the base code of DNA as a guide. The mRNA will carry the genetic message of DNA into the cytoplasm where protein sythesis occurs
- Translation is when the mRNA moves to the ribosome, where it is met by transfer RNA molecules bonded to different amino acids. The tRNA molecules align themselves opposite the mRNA molecule and bring the amino acids into position. The peptide bond forms between adjecent amino acids on the growing protien chain, after which the amino acid leaves the tRNA. The tRNA returns to the cytoplasm to bond with another amino acid molecule |
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Term
| Viral Replication and the Steps |
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Definition
- Attachment to a specific cell receptor
- Entry in the host cell
- Uncoiling and replication of the viral genome
o Genome is DNA or RNA
- Synthesis of viral proteins
- Assembly of new virions
- Release from host cell
o Lysis/ Budding- are always enveloped (lipid envelope picked up when virus passes through cell wall)/ Lytic virus breaks apart cell to get at once replication is complete |
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Term
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Definition
- Retroviruses have an RNA genome
- Make a DNA copy from the viral RNA
o This is “backward" or “retro” because RNA is usually made from DNA
o Carried out by the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase
- Insert the viral DNA into the DNA of the host cell (Latent, doesn’t cause any symptoms but it integrates into your DNA) |
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Term
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Definition
| - small circle of DNA that replicates itself independently of chromosomal DNA, especially in the cells of bacteria |
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Term
| Explain genetic diversity |
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Definition
- Sex: ensuring genetic diversity in our population (eukaryotes)
- Combinations of genes from two different parents result in offspring each of which is genetically unique (except for identical twins, triplets, etc. |
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Term
| How do viruses and prokaryotes use to help ensure genetic diversity? |
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Definition
| - Mutations: permanent change in the DNA or RNA for viruses |
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Term
| What are the two general terms for mutations and give some examples |
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Definition
1) Spontaneous
- Ex. An error during DNA replication
2) Induced
- Ex. DNA altered by ultra- violet radiation |
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Term
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Definition
point mu·ta·tion n
- a mutation that involves a change in a single base or base pair of the nucleotides in a gene, occurring as a result of addition, deletion, or substitution |
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Term
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Definition
- When pieces of your own DNA move
- "jumping genes" |
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Term
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Definition
| - A mutation that changes a codon that codes for one amino acid into a codon that does not specify any amino acid (a nonsense codon). |
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Term
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Definition
| - When viruses exchange genes |
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Term
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Definition
| - When the genotype changes, but the phenotype stays the same |
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Term
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Definition
| - When the genotype and the phenotype can change |
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Term
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Definition
| - Dangerous, one base can change and then everything else can change |
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Term
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Definition
- due to a single point mutation in the hemoglobin gene (changes how the blood cells are formed)
- Sickle cell trait
o People who acquire two copies of the sickle cell gene have sickle- cell disease
o People who acquire one copy of the sickle cell hemoglobin gene, and one copy of the normal hemoglobin gene, have sickle cell trait
o People with sickle cell trait do not suffer from sickle cell anemia and are more resistant to malaria |
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Term
| 3 Mechanisms by which bacteria recombine their genes |
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Definition
- Transformation: uptake of “naked” bacterial DNA from dead, lysed (or destructed) bacteria
- Conjugation: exchange of genes between two live bacterial cells that are touching one another
- Transduction: bacteriophage- virus that effects bacterium, transfers genes from one bacterium to another |
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Term
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Definition
| - Reassortment of viruses means that viruses of different types exchange genetic material resulting in a genetically different virus. In the case of bird flu, the fear is that a person could be infected with two virues at the same time (co-infected), a virulent bird flu virus and a common human flu virus resulting in the exchange of genetic information between the two. The exchange of genetic material could result in a deadly virus that is as easily transmissible from one person to another as the common seasonal flu viruses. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
- Fragments of DNA separated using agar gel electrophoresis
- Pattern of DNA bands forms unique "fingerprint"
- Everyone has a unique DNA sequence |
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Term
| Cloning and what exactly is a clone? |
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Definition
- A close is a group of genetically identical cells or organisms derived from asexual reproduction
- A clone is two organisms that have the exact same DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| - the alteration and recombination of genetic material by technological means |
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Term
| Restriction enzymes- scissors |
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Definition
- naturally produced by bacteria
- could be directed to snip a bacterial chromosome at a specific point
- help bacteria restrict bacteriophage replication by destroying the phage's nucleic acid within the bacterial cytoplasm |
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Term
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Definition
- a complex protein that is produced by host cells in response to a virus or bacterium and that inhibits virus development
- Used to treat certain viral diseases and can even be active against cancer cells
- Found through genetic engineering |
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Term
| Citric acid and how it is produced |
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Definition
- Produced by a fungus (mold) and its normal metabolism
- The citric acid is excreted because the fungus lacks the enxyme to break it down further through the krebs cycle: series of chemical reactions with the energy metabolism in aerobic organisms |
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Term
| What is influenza and what is it caused by and its two types of protein spikes? |
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Definition
- Influenza comes in two types A, B, and C but type A is the most commonly associated with pandemics
- Influenza is caused by an enveloped virus with a genome consisting of 8 segments of single stranded RNA
- The two protein spikes are hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N)
- Because it has a segmented genome, it can undergo genetic reassortment and because of the two protein types it can result in a recombinant virus |
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Term
| Describe the 1918 flu epidemic |
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Definition
- Occured when an influenza virus that normally infects birds, infected pigs. At the same time, an influenza virus that normally infects humans, also infected pigs
- What happened was the two flu virus strains reassorted in pig cells,creating a new influenza virus
- And because this was a new strain humans had no immunity to it
- This new strain killed healthy young people by pneumonia that filled the lungs with fluid
- Over 20 million died |
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Term
| What is the reservoir hosts of the influenza virus? |
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Definition
| - Humans, birds, and pigs |
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Term
| How is influenza transmitted? |
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Definition
- Acquired through inhalation through contaminated respiratory droplets
- Also through fomites (germs on clothing or bedding)
- Through eyes as well |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of the influenza virus? |
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Definition
- First are typical flu symptoms (chills, fever, fatigue)
- Can resolve in a week or 10 days
- BUT secondary bacterial infections can occur in the very young, elderly, and immunocompromised patients |
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Term
| What is the treatment for influenza? |
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Definition
| - There are several anti- viral drugs, such as amantidine, that help prevent the virus from attaching to the host cell, thus slowing the infection |
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Term
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Definition
| - likely to cause serious disease |
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Term
| What are the two vaccines for influenza? |
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Definition
- The inactivated vaccine, which consists of whole influenza viruses OR a subunit vaccine which has only pieces of the viruses
- The second type is the new attenuated vaccine which can be administered by nasal- spray
- Must be administered each year because the viruses undergo antigenic drift (resulting in slightly different strains each year) |
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Term
| What is the HIV virus and how does it cause AIDS? |
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Definition
- HIV is the causative agent of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)
- The infection with the virus results in decreased functioning of the immune system allowing opportunistic infections to take hold in an immunocompromised host
- HIV is lentent for long periods of time and then the new viruses bud out of the host cell, acquiring their envelopes
- Is a retrovirus, and is enveloped |
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Term
| What is the reservoir host for HIV? |
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Definition
| - Humans are the only ones and there are no environmental resevoirs |
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Term
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Definition
- It is primarilly transmitted through blood and semen (sex and drug needles)
- Can possibly be transmitted through congenital transmission when an infected mother infects the fetus in delivery or through breast milk |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of HIV? |
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Definition
- HIV infects CD4T cells and macrophages which are important cells in the immune response.
- Because of this HIV may only be found when an infected person becomes ill with an opportunistic infection because it normally doesn't appear for many months or years |
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Term
| What is the diagnosis of HIV? |
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Definition
- There is a antigen- antibody test called the ELISA test
- It detects the presense of specific antibody to HIV, and therefore indicates the exposure to the virus, and then additional tests are done to prove that a person is actually infected with HIV |
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Term
| What is the treatment for HIV? |
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Definition
- There is no cure for HIV
- Several antiviral drugs are used to inhibit viral replication and slow the progress of the disease
- Because HIV is an RNA virus, it mutates rapidly and the antiviral drugs eventually become inefective
- Some examples of HIV antiviral drugs include: AZT, Protease inhibitors, Integrase inhibitors, and fusion inhibitors |
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Term
| E. Coli 0157:H7 Food Infection |
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Definition
- This is a particular strain of the E. coli bacteria
- 0517:H7 refers to the particular strain of the bacterium, which produces a toxin
- The pathogenic strain of the bacterium most likely arose when a normally harmless strain of E. coli acquired a toxin gene from anotehr bacterium through transduction |
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Term
| What is the resservoir host for this E. Coli? |
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Definition
| - It is found in the insestines of cattle and other animals such as deer and is excreted in the animals feces |
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Term
| How is this E. Coli transmitted? |
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Definition
- Meat products may become contaminated during slaughter
- Water may be from animal waste
- Other foods may be from exposure to water or fertilizers containing the bacterium |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of this E. Coli? |
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Definition
- Incubation period is 12 to 72 hours
- After this bloody diarrhea, or just diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and occasianally fever can occur
- Most get over it in 1-3 days but it severe cases there can be kidney failure which can cause death
- The disease is dangerous to the very young, elderly, and immunocompromised |
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Term
| How does one prevent this E.Coli? |
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Definition
| - It is a food infection so with the heating of food or water it will kill the bacteria, thereby preventing the disease |
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Term
| What is the treatment for this E. Coli? |
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Definition
| - Antibiotics are effective against the bacteria, but not the toxin |
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Term
| What is the vaccine for this E. Coli? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| - Rabies is caused by a bullet chaped virus which contains a non- segmented, negative- stranded RNA genome |
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Term
| What are the reservoirs of the Rabies virus? |
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Definition
- Mostly in wild animals, such as bats, raccoons, skunks, and coyotes
- Most mammals are susceptible to rabies infections |
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Term
| How is Rabies transmitted? |
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Definition
| - The most common route is through a bite or contact with virus- containing saliva |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of Rabies? |
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Definition
- After the bite the virus enters the wound and replicates in the damaged tissue
- Then the virus attacks nerve endings and eventually the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, attack the brain and leading to death
- Flu- like symptoms at first and then NEUROLOGICAL symptoms appear such as insomnia, anxiety, confusion etc. |
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Term
| What are the treatments for Rabies? |
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Definition
| - Treatment is a thorough cleaning of the wound, administration of the VACCINE, and administration of HUMAN RABIES ANTISERUM(immune globulin) |
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Term
| What is the vaccine for Rabies? |
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Definition
| - There are two rabies vaccines and both are dead, INACTIVATED VACCINES |
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Term
| What is a herpesvirus infection and what are its hosts? |
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Definition
- They are enveloped, double- stranded DNA viruses that cause latent infections
- Humans are ONLY HOST that cause chicken pox, mono, and oral and genital herpes diseases |
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Term
| What is chicken pox and what is its resevoir host? |
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Definition
- Chicken pox is caused by the VARICELLA VIRUS
- Humans are the ONLY HOST and there are no environmental reservoirs |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of chicken pox? |
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Definition
- Incubation period is about 2 weeks
- Usually only infects humans
- Fever, head ache, fatigue then enters through the blood stream and localizes in the nerves and the skin forming INFECTIOUS, fluid- filled VESICLES
- Recovery normally means LIFE-LONG IMMUNITY |
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Term
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Definition
| - Complication with children recovering from chicken pox or the flu who take aspirin |
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Term
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Definition
- Occurs in come adults who had chicken pox as childrren and the latent virus is REACTIVATED which appears to be linked to age or conditions tha suppress the immune system
- The rash is infectious |
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Term
| What is the treatment for chicken pox? |
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Definition
| - The antiviral drug ACYCLOVIR may be used to help lessen symptoms of both chicken pox and shingles, but because the virus is latent, it remains in the nerve ganglia even after the patient recovers from chicken pox |
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Term
| What is the vaccine for chicken pox? |
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Definition
| - VARIVAX VACCINE which contains live, ATTENUATED virus |
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Term
| What is Infectious Mononucleosis and what is the reservoir host? |
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Definition
- Caused by Epstein- Barr virus
- HUMANS are the ONLY HOST and there are no environmental reservoirs |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of mono? |
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Definition
- Fatigue, enlarged lymphnodes, sore throat
- There are damaged B- LYMPHOCYTES (an anti- body producing white blood cells)
- Can effect the spleen and that is why physical activity is a no because it might rupture it or it can effect the liver with hepatitus |
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Term
| What is Herpes Simplex Type 1 the cause of? |
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Definition
| - Oral Herpes (cold sores, fever blisters) |
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Term
| What does the herpes simplex type 2 cause? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the reservoir hosts for herpes? |
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Definition
| - Humans are the ONLY host and there are no environmental reservoirs |
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Term
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Definition
| - Occurs when a baby is infected through the birth canal of an infected mother which can lead to encephalitis |
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Term
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Definition
- When the virus infects the eye
- Babies can get from mom at birth
- Or from contact lenses etc. |
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Term
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Definition
- The virus produces infectious blisters or sore in the skin (The mucosal membranes are particularly susceptible)
- The blisters will heal, but the virsuses remain LATENT and are REACTIVATED by ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT, STRESS, and HORMONAL CHANGES
- The reactivated virus will cause another outbreak of blisters in the same region where the disease first appeared |
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Term
| What is the treatment for herpes? |
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Definition
- Antiviral drugs such as acyclovir, can be used to treat it but not fully heal it.
- It remains latent and will reactivate |
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Term
| What is the West Nile Virus and some of its history? |
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Definition
- Also known as Encephalitis
- First started in older patients in Isreal then traveled to Europe, North America and then the US
- The virus responsible has a positive- sense, single stranded RNA genome |
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Term
| What is the reservoirs for West Nile Virus? |
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Definition
- Wild birds are the ONLY known host, some are unknown
- HUMANS and HORSES are NOT because they are DEAD END HOSTS, meaning a mosquito can not become infected by feeding on a horse or human with WNV |
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Term
| How is the West Nile Virus transmitted? |
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Definition
| - The mosquito is the ONLY VECTOR so an infected mosquito has to pass it around from animal or human and is NOT transmitted from one person to another |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of West Nile Virus? |
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Definition
| - Some show no signs, others show flu- like signs, and others have a illness that infects the NERVOUS SYSTEM |
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Term
| What is the treatment and vaccine for West Nile Virus? |
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Definition
- There is no HUMAN vaccine, but there is for horses
- Treatment is the same for the flu |
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