Term
| Which hormones remain in circulation for the longest time? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A capillary portal system is found in which endocrine structure? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The production of calcitonin by the thyroid gland results in: |
|
Definition
| increased excretion of calcium by the kidneys. |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the kidneys as a result of the release of natriuretic peptides by the heart? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the dominant hormones of the resistance phase of the stress response? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Myxedema and cretinism are the results of underproduction of or tissue insensitivity to which hormones? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Which is incorrect regarding the parathyroid glands?
1. Oxyphils in the parathyroid glands have several functions.
2. Parathyroid cells produce PTH.
3. PTH triggers the release of a growth factor that increases osteoclast numbers.
4. PTH, aided by calcitriol, is the primary regulator of circulating calcium ion concentrations. |
|
Definition
| Oxyphils in the parathyroid glands have several functions. |
|
|
Term
| Which mechanism of intercellular communication uses ions, small solutes, and lipid-soluble materials as its chemical mediators? |
|
Definition
| direct communication (This mechanism transmits through gap junctions, and is usually limited to adjacent cells of the same type.) |
|
|
Term
| Which endocrine structure secretes a hormone that affects reproductive function and helps establish circadian rhythms? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Thyroid hormones do not/cannot: |
|
Definition
| diffuse across the lipid part of the plasma membrane. |
|
|
Term
| Which anterior pituitary hormone works with other hormones to stimulate mammary gland development? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In males, which hormone affects the smooth musculature in the ductus deferens and the prostate gland? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| T or F: thyroid hormones inhibit red blood cell formation. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The presence or absence of reproductive hormones affects the growth of specific cell populations and the activity of which cells in key locations? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In direct communication and __________ communication, cells communicate through gap junctions and across synaptic clefts, respectively. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| __________ and steroid hormones are lipid-derivative hormones, which consist of carbon rings and side chains built either from fatty acids or cholesterol, respectively. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When the calcium ions themselves serve as second messengers, they generally do so in combination with an intracellular protein called __________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glucagon increases the rates of __________ breakdown and glucose release by the liver. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The pineal gland contains neurons, neuroglia, and special secretory cells called __________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Diabetes mellitus can be caused by genetic abnormalities or __________ that result in inadequate insulin production, the synthesis of abnormal insulin molecules, or the production of defective insulin-receptor proteins. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| PTH and calcitonin are two hormones that may have __________ effects, one of the possible outcomes that result when a cell receives instructions from two hormones at the same time. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Most endocrine disorders are the result of problems with the endocrine gland that result in __________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids results in the endocrine disorder known as __________ disease. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When many tissues use fatty acids to generate __________ as a result of the direct action of GH on adipose tissue, this is known as a glucose-sparing effect. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Usually limited to adjacent cells of the same type that are interconnected |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Primarily limited to the local area in which target cells must have appropriate receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Target cells are primarily in other tissues and organs and must have appropriate receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Limited to very specific area in which target cells must have appropriate receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The nervous and endocrine systems are both primarily regulated by what? |
|
Definition
| negative feedback control mechanisms |
|
|
Term
| The common goal of the nervous and endocrine systems is what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hormones and paracrine factors are divided based on what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which hormones are amino acid derivatives? |
|
Definition
| thyroid hormones, catecholamines, and melatonin |
|
|
Term
| Which hormones are catecholamines? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Melatonin is a derivative of _____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The most common types of hormones in the body are _____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Peptide hormones are generally synthesized as what? |
|
Definition
| prohormones (inactive molecules that are converted to active hormones either before or after they're secreted) |
|
|
Term
| Which peptide hormones are short polypeptide chains? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which peptide hormones are short proteins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Peptide hormones include all hormones secreted by the _____, _____, _____, _____, _____, and most of them secreted by the _____. |
|
Definition
hypothalamus, heart, pancreas, digestive tract, thymus
pituitary gland |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| polypeptides that carbohydrate side chains and may also function as hormones |
|
|
Term
| What are some examples of glycoproteins? |
|
Definition
| TSH, luteinizing hormone (LH), and FSH from the pituitary gland |
|
|
Term
| The chemical structure of lipid derived hormones is _____. |
|
Definition
| carbon rings and side chains built either from fatty acids or cholesterol |
|
|
Term
| Lipid hormones built from fatty acids are ____, and ones built from cholesterol are _____. |
|
Definition
eicosanoids
steroid hormones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lipid derivatives; important paracrine factors the coordinate cell activities and affect enzymatic processes in extracellular fluids |
|
|
Term
| Only some eicosanoids have secondary roles as _____, most are _____. |
|
Definition
hormones
paracrine factors |
|
|
Term
| A second group of eicosanoids are _____, and they are involved primarily in _____. |
|
Definition
prostaglandins
coordinating local cellular activities |
|
|
Term
| Where are steroid hormones released, and which are released there? |
|
Definition
| reproductive organs (androgens by testes in males, estrogens and progestins by ovaries in females), cortex of adrenal glands (corticosteroids), and the kidneys (calcitriol) |
|
|
Term
| What are the organs of the endocrine system, and the organs with secondary endocrine functions? |
|
Definition
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, and pancreas
heart, thymus, digestive tract, kidneys, and gonads |
|
|
Term
| The hypothalamus secretes hormones involved in what? |
|
Definition
| fluid balance, smooth muscle contraction, and the control of hormone secretion by the anterior pituitary gland |
|
|
Term
| The pituitary gland secretes hormones involved in what? |
|
Definition
| regulating the endocrine activities of the adrenal cortex, thyroid gland, and reproductive organs |
|
|
Term
| The pituitary gland also secretes a hormone that stimulates _____ production. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The thyroid gland secretes hormones involved in what? |
|
Definition
| affect metabolic rate and Ca2+ levels in body fluids |
|
|
Term
| The parathyroid glands secrete a hormone involved in what? |
|
Definition
| the regulation of Ca2+ levels in body fluids |
|
|
Term
| The adrenal glands secrete hormones involved in what? |
|
Definition
| mineral balance, metabolic control. and resistance to stress |
|
|
Term
| The adrenal medulla releases _____ and _____ during what? |
|
Definition
E and NE
sympathetic activation |
|
|
Term
| What part of the pancreas is involved in endocrine function, and what do its hormones do? |
|
Definition
pancreatic islets
regulate the rate of glucose uptake and utilization by the body tissues |
|
|
Term
| The heart secretes hormones involved in what? |
|
Definition
| regulation of blood volume |
|
|
Term
| The thymus secretes hormones involved in what? |
|
Definition
| stimulation and coordination of the immune response |
|
|
Term
| The digestive tract secretes hormones involved in what? |
|
Definition
| coordination of system functions, glucose metabolism, and appetite |
|
|
Term
| The kidneys secrete hormones involved in what? |
|
Definition
| regulate blood cell production and the rates of Ca2+ and phosphate absorption by the intestinal tract |
|
|
Term
| The gonads secrete hormones involved in what? |
|
Definition
| growth, metabolism, coordination of the activities of oreproductive organs, and sexual characteristics |
|
|
Term
| To affect target cells, hormones first do what? |
|
Definition
| interact with the appropriate receptor-a protein to which it binds strongly |
|
|
Term
| What is one reason hormones have differential effects on specific tissues? |
|
Definition
| cells in different tissues have different combinations of receptors |
|
|
Term
| Hormones that bind to receptors in the plasma membrane can't do what? |
|
Definition
| have a direct effect on activities underway inside the target cell |
|
|
Term
| What are the first and second messengers in hormones' (that bind to receptors on the plasma membrane) interactions with target cells? |
|
Definition
1st: hormone
2nd: intracellular intermediary (enzymes) |
|
|
Term
| What are the two most important 2nd messengers? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Second messengers may act as what? |
|
Definition
| enzyme activators, inhibitors, or cofactors |
|
|
Term
| The link between 1st and 2nd messengers usually involves what? |
|
Definition
| a G protein (an enzyme complex coupled to a membrane receptor) |
|
|
Term
| What do G proteins usually do? |
|
Definition
| change the concentration of cAMP |
|
|
Term
| When cAMP increases or decreases, what happens? |
|
Definition
increase: enzyme activation and/or open ion channels, which accelerates the metabolic activity of the cell
decrease: decrease in enzyme activity |
|
|
Term
| When G proteins use Ca2+ as a 2nd messenger, where do they get it from, and what does it do? |
|
Definition
released from ER, SER, or open Ca2+ membrane channels
used in combo with and intracellular protein calmodulin, it activates enzymes |
|
|
Term
| Steroid hormones bind to receptors that are where? |
|
Definition
| in the cytoplasm or nucleus b/c they can diffuse across the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
| What happens after steroid hormones bind to their receptors? |
|
Definition
| the hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA, genes are activation, the rate of DNA transcription is altered in the nucleus, and the pattern of protein synthesis is changed |
|
|
Term
| Steroid hormones _____ [directly/indirectly] affect the target cell's _____. |
|
Definition
directly
metabolic activity and structure |
|
|
Term
| Thyroid hormones are primarily transported across the plasma membrane how? |
|
Definition
| by carrier-mediated processes |
|
|
Term
| Once in the cell, thyroid hormones do what? |
|
Definition
| bind to receptors on mitochondria (where they increase the rate of ATP production) and in the nucleus (where they bind to DNA and activate genes and change the rate of transcription) |
|
|
Term
| Thyroid hormones affect metabolic activity of a cell by _____. |
|
Definition
| increasing or decreasing the concentration of an enzyme |
|
|
Term
| Water and lipid soluble hormones can or can't cross the plasma membrane? Give examples of these. |
|
Definition
water can't (most peptides and proteins)
lipid can (steroid and thyroid hormones) |
|
|
Term
| Which structure provides the highest level of endocrine control? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In what 3 ways does the hypothalamus integrate the activities of the nervous and endocrine systems? |
|
Definition
1. neurons synthesize ADH and OXT
2. secretes regulatory hormones
3. contains autonomic centers |
|
|
Term
| In the hypothalamus, what happens to ADH and OXT? |
|
Definition
| synthesized, transported along axons within the infundibulum to the posterior lobe of the pituitary, and are released into circulation from there |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| special hormones that control the secretory activities of endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, which in turn control the activities of endocrine cells in the thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, and reproductive organs |
|
|
Term
| What do hypothalamic autonomic centers do? |
|
Definition
| exert direct neural control over endocrine cells of the adrenal medullae |
|
|
Term
| What is stimulated directly and immediately when the sympathetic nervous system is activated? |
|
Definition
| hypothalamic autonomic centers- the adrenal medullae then secretes E and NE |
|
|
Term
| How does the hypothalamus control the production of hormones in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland? |
|
Definition
| by secreting specific regulatory hormones at the median eminence into surrounding interstitial fluids that enter the bloodstream easily b/c endothelial cells lining capillaries are usually permeable here |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| capillaries near the hypothalamus/pituitary gland that allow large molecules to enter and leave the bloodstream |
|
|
Term
| Where, specifically, are ADH and OXT made? |
|
Definition
| the neurons of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei |
|
|
Term
| The hypophyseal portal system ensures that _____. |
|
Definition
| all hypothalamic hormones entering portal vessels will reach target cells in the anterior lobe before being diluted through mixing with general circulation |
|
|
Term
| The hypophyseal portal system is strictly _____ because why? |
|
Definition
| one-way communication b/c any chemical released by cells downstream must do a complete circuit of the cardiovascular system before reaching the capillaries of the portal system |
|
|
Term
| The capillary networks in the median eminence are supplied by _____. |
|
Definition
| the superior hypophyseal artery |
|
|
Term
| Blood vessels linking the 2 capillary networks of the portal system are called _____. |
|
Definition
| portal vessels (are called portal veins b/c they have the histological structure of veins) |
|
|
Term
| The pituitary gland is aka _____, and it is located where? |
|
Definition
hypophysis
nestled in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone |
|
|
Term
| The pituitary gland releases _____ hormones that all _____. |
|
Definition
9 peptide hormones
bind to membrane receptors and use cAMP as a 2nd messenger |
|
|
Term
| anterior lobe of the pituitary |
|
Definition
| aka adenohypophysis; secretes 7 tropic hormones |
|
|
Term
| Tropic hormones are so named b/c of what? |
|
Definition
| they "turn on" endocrine glands |
|
|
Term
| The 7 tropic hormones are: |
|
Definition
| TSH, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), the gonadotropins (FSH and LH), GH, PRL, and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) |
|
|
Term
| TSH (name, definition, released in response to) |
|
Definition
| thyroid-stimulating hormone; targets the thyroid gland where it triggers the release of thyroid hormones; released in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| adrenocorticotropic hormone, aka corticotropin; stimulates release of steroid hormones by the adrenal cortex; released in response to corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) |
|
|
Term
| ACTH specifically targets: |
|
Definition
| cells that produce hormones that affect glucose metabolism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| regulate the activity of the gonads; released in response to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH); 2 types are FSH and LH |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| follicle-stimulating hormone; promotes ovarian follicle development and stimulates secretion of estrogens by ovarian cells in combo with LH |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| promotes the physical maturation of developing sperm |
|
|
Term
| FSH is inhibited by what? |
|
Definition
| inhibin, a peptide hormone released by cells in the testes and ovaries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| leteinizing hormone; induces ovulation and promotes secretion, by the ovaries, of estrogens and progestins, which prepare the body for possible pregnancy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stimulates the production of sex hormones (androgens, most imp. being testosterone) by the interstitial cells of the testes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| growth hormone; stimulates cell growth and reproduction by accelerating the rate of protein synthesis; produced/inhibited by GH-RH and GH-IH from the hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| What types of cells are especially sensitive to GH? |
|
Definition
| skeletal muscle cells and chondrocytes |
|
|
Term
| GH indirect stimulation of growth |
|
Definition
| primary mechanism; liver cells respond by synthesizing and releasing somatomedins, which are peptide hormones that bind to receptor sites on p.m. and increase the rate of amino acid uptake and incorporation into new proteins |
|
|
Term
| GH direct stimulation of growth |
|
Definition
| more selective; in epithelia and connective tissue: stimulates stem cell divisions and the differentiation of daughter cells; in adipose tissue: stimulates the breakdown and stored triglycerides by adipocytes, releasing fatty acids into the blood; in liver: stimulates the breakdown of glycogen reserves, releasing glucose into the blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when GH stimulates the breakdown of stored triglycerides by adipocyte in adipose tissue, which release fatty acids into the bloodstream, many tissues then stop breaking down glucose and use the fatty acids instead to generate ATP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| prolactin; works with other hormones to stimulate mammary gland development and milk production; release by prolactin-releasing factors, inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| melanocyte-stimulating hormone; stimulates the melanocytes of the skin to increase production of melanin; secreted by the pars intermedia, a part of the anterior lobe |
|
|
Term
| The ____ is usually nonfunctional in adults, causing blood to contain none of which hormone? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the hormones of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ADH is released in response to what? |
|
Definition
| a variety of stimuli; mostly an increase in solute concentration in the blood or a decrease in blood volume or pressure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specialized hypothalamic neurons that stimulate neurons to release ADH after a change in solute concentration in the blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the decrease the amount of water lost at the kidneys |
|
|
Term
| How does ADH accomplish its primary function? |
|
Definition
| water absorbed from the digestive tract is retained, leading to decrease in electrolyte concentration in extracellular fluid |
|
|
Term
| release of ADH is inhibited by |
|
Definition
alcohol, leading to increased fluid excretion
an increase in extracellular fluid volume |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| oxytocin; stimulates smooth muscles contractions in the wall of a woman's uterus to promote labor and delivery; also promotes the ejection of milk; release triggered by neuroendocrine reflex |
|
|
Term
| Circulating OXY increases during what, which has unknown functions? |
|
Definition
| sexual arousal with peak at orgasm |
|
|
Term
| Steps of hormone release in hypothalamus and pituitary, with negative feedback control |
|
Definition
| hypothalamus producing a releasing hormone or factor that triggers the release of a hormone by the anterior pituitary; pituitary hormone stimulates release of a 2nd hormone by the target organ; this last hormone suppresses secretion of both the hypothalamic and pituitary releasing hormone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| compounds that stimulate tissue growth by increasing amino acid uptake; function like the hormones released by target organs that inhibit hypothalamus and pituitary hormones |
|
|
Term
| What is sensitive to somatomedins? |
|
Definition
| GHIH and GHRH; suppresses secretion of GHRH and stimulates secretion of GHIH, providing more reaped and precise regulation of GH levels |
|
|
Term
| direct release of hormones leads to |
|
Definition
| sensory stimulation and/or osmoreceptor stimulation -> posterior pituitary -> releases hormone to organs -> carrying out of a function |
|
|
Term
| indirect endocrine control happens through |
|
Definition
| the hypophyseal portal system where regulatory hormones are released for delivery to anterior pituitary (which releases hormones to target organs which release their hormones) |
|
|
Term
| The thyroid gland contains large number of _____. |
|
Definition
| thyroid follicles: hollow spheres lined by simple cuboidal epithelium, surrounded by a network of capillaries; cells surround a follicle cavity with viscous colloid |
|
|
Term
| follicle cells of the thyroid synthesize |
|
Definition
| thyroglobulin: a globular protein containing the amino acid tyrosine, the building block of thyroid hormones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| clear; large, pale endocrine cells that lie between the basal laminae of the follicle cells and produce calcitonin (CT), which aids in the regulation of Ca2+ in body fluids |
|
|
Term
| the continuous process by which thyroid hormones are produced and stored within thyroglobulin in the thyroid follicles |
|
Definition
| I- absorbed from diet, delivered to thyroid gland by blood; I- diffuses to apical surface of each follicle cell and converted to I+ (active); I+ attaches to tyrosine proteins of a thyroglobulin; thyroxine (T4) and T3 are within a thyroglobulin; follicle cells remove thyroglobulin from the follicle cavity by endocytosis; lysosomal enzymes break thyroglobulin down, which releases amino acids and thyroid hormones that enter the cytoplasm |
|
|
Term
| What do released T3 and T4 do? |
|
Definition
| diffuse across the basement membrane and enter the bloodstream |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 90% of thyroid secretions is T4, but T3 has much stronger metabolic effects |
|
|
Term
| What do 75% of T4 and 70% of T3 in the bloodstream do? |
|
Definition
| attach to transport proteins called thyroid-binding globulins (TBGs) that release thyroid hormones gradually |
|
|
Term
| The bloodstream normally contains how much thyroid hormone? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A general summary of the effects of thyroid hormones: |
|
Definition
| act as sympathetic stimulation would affect the body (stimulates a lot of activities having to do with respiration) |
|
|
Term
| the 2 cell populations of the 4 parathyroid glands |
|
Definition
parathyroid cells (produce PTH)
oxyphils |
|
|
Term
| Parathyroid cells monitor ____, and do what in response? |
|
Definition
| circulating Ca2+ levels; secrete PTH when levels fall below normal |
|
|
Term
| PTH has an opposing effect from which hormone? |
|
Definition
| calcitonin (PTH increases Ca2+, calcitonin decreases Ca2+) |
|
|
Term
| What can be administered clinically to treat several metabolic disorders that cause and increase in Ca2+ levels and excessive bone formation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thyroid gland produces calcitonin, kidneys increase excretion of Ca2+, Ca2+ deposition in bone is also increased, blood Ca2+ levels decrease back to homeostasis |
|
|
Term
| Calcitonin aids PTH in its role of primary regulator of circulating Ca2+ levels when secreted by _____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| parathyroid glands secrete PTH, reabsorption of Ca2+ by the kidneys is increased, Ca2+ is released from bone, calcitriol production is increased (causing Ca2+ reabsorption from digestive system), and blood Ca2+ levels rise back to homeostasis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mobilized Ca2+ from bone by inhibiting osteoblasts and triggering the release of a growth factor that increases osteoclasts |
|
|
Term
| In bone are osteoblasts or clasts more numerous, and what does this do? |
|
Definition
| osteoclasts: activity predominates, bone matrix erodes, and plasma Ca2+ levels rise |
|
|
Term
| effects of PTH on kidneys |
|
Definition
| enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ by kidneys, reducing its loss in urine; also stimulates formation and secretion of calcitriol, which complements the effects of PTH and enhances Ca2+ and PO43- absorption by the digestive tract |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| yellow, pyramid-shaped suprarenal glands that sit on the superior border of each kidney; outer cortex and inner medulla |
|
|
Term
| The adrenal glands are _____ (like the kidneys), which means what? |
|
Definition
| retroperitoneal; only their anterior surfaces are covered by a layer of parietal peritoneum, they're behind the peritoneum |
|
|
Term
| The adrenal cortex produces how many hormones, that are called what? |
|
Definition
| > 24 steroid hormones called adrenocortical steroids or corticosteroids |
|
|
Term
| How do adrenocortical steroids exert their effects? |
|
Definition
| by determining which genes in the nuclei of target cells are transcribed and at what rate, resulting in a change in the nature and concentration of enzymes in the cytoplasm, affecting cellular metabolism |
|
|
Term
| the 3 regions of the cortex, deep to the adrenal capsule |
|
Definition
1. zona glomerulosa
2. zona fasciculata
3. zona reticularis |
|
|
Term
| The zona glomerulosa synthesizes and targets what? |
|
Definition
| mineralcorticoids (MCs), primarily aldosterone; targets kidneys |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increases renal reabsorption of Na+ and water, especially in the presence of ADH, which increases the urinary loss of K+ |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates and inhibits MCs? |
|
Definition
| stimulated by the activation of the renin-angiotensin system; inhibited by hormones opposing the renin-angiotensin system |
|
|
Term
| The zona fasciculata synthesizes what? |
|
Definition
| glucocorticoids (GCs): steroid hormones that affect glucose metabolism by increasing the rate of glucose and glycogen formation by the liver; primary hormones are cortisol and less corticosterone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| aka hydrocortisone; some is converted to cortisone by the liver; anti-inflammatory effect |
|
|
Term
| What 2 things do GCs do to supplement the glucose-sparing effect of GH? |
|
Definition
| stimulate release of amino acids from the skeletal muscles and lipids from adipose tissues; promote lipid catabolism within peripheral cells |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates secretion of GCs? |
|
Definition
| ACTH from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland |
|
|
Term
| The zona reticularis synthesizes what? |
|
Definition
| small quantities of androgens that may be converted to estrogens in the bloodstream, but have little effect in normal adults |
|
|
Term
| Adrenal androgens mostly affect what? |
|
Definition
| the development of pubic hair in children before puberty |
|
|
Term
| Secretion of adrenal androgens is stimulated by what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the adrenal medulla synthesize, stimulated by what? |
|
Definition
| E and NE; sympathetic preganglionic fibers during sympathetic activation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in the abdominopelvic cavity in a loop formed between the inferior border of the stomach and the proximal portion of the small intestine; posterior and deep to the stomach |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 99% of organ's total volume; secretes an alkaline, enzyme-rich fluid that goes to the digestive tract |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| consists of small groups of cells (pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans) scattered among the exocrine cells |
|
|
Term
| What kind of cells does the endocrine pancreas have? |
|
Definition
| alpha, beta, delta, and F cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produce glucagon (raises blood glucose levels by increasing the rates of glycogen breakdown and glucose release by the liver) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produce insulin (lowers blood glucose levels by increasing the rate of glucose uptake and utilization by cells and by increasing glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscle cells and the liver) |
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|
Term
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Definition
| produce a peptide hormone identical to GHIH that suppresses the release of glucagon and insulin by other islet cells and slows the rates of food absorption and enzyme secretion along the digestive tract |
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Term
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Definition
| produce pancreatic polypeptide (PP) that inhibits gallbladder contraction and regulates the production of some pancreatic enzymes |
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Term
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Definition
| a lumen continuous with a pancreatic duct; small clusters of pancreatic exocrine cells secrete into it |
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Term
| Which hormones are the primary hormones responsible for the regulation of blood glucose levels? |
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Definition
| insulin and glucagon- have opposing effects |
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Term
| homeostatic blood glucose levels |
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Definition
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Term
| blood glucose levels fall below normal |
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Definition
| alpha cells secrete glucagon, increased breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver and skeletal muscles, increased breakdown of fat to fatty acids in adipose tissue, and increased synthesis and release of glucose in the liver |
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Term
| blood glucose levels rise above normal |
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Definition
| beta cells secrete insulin; rates of glucose transport, glucose utilization, ATP generation, conversion of glucose to glycogen, amino acid absorption, protein sythesis, and triglyceride synthesis in adipose tissue all increase |
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Term
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Definition
| glucose-transporter molecules (proteins) that are embedded in membranes and use ATP to lower blood glucose glucose levels; 3 and 4 are insulin sensitive |
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Term
| Liver stores glucose as _____ and can break it down and release it into the bloodstream. How do muscles relate to this? |
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Definition
| glycogen; muscles store glucose as this too but can't release it into the bloodstream or break it down for energy |
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Term
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Definition
| part of the epithalamus; contains neurons, neuroglia, and special secretory cells called pinealocytes that synthesize melatonin from serotonin |
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Term
| What enter the pineal gland and affect the rate of melatonin production? |
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Definition
| collaterals from the visual pathways |
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Term
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Definition
| endocrine disorder characterized by glucose concentrations that are high enough to overwhelm the reabsorption capabilities of the kidneys |
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Term
| What three conditions can this cause? |
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Definition
| hyperglycemia (high blood glucose), glycosuria (glucose appears in the urine), polyuria (urine volume becomes excessive) |
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Term
| What can cause diabetes mellitus? |
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Definition
| genetic abnormalities or mutations that result in inadequate production, synthesis of abnormal insulin molecules, or production of defective insulin-receptor proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| insulin-dependent; inadequate insulin production by the pancreatic beta cells; must receive daily injections or continuous infusion of insulin to live; only 5-10% of diabetes and often develops in childhood |
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Term
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Definition
| non insulin dependent; most individuals produce normal amounts of insulin, but their tissues don't respond to insulin properly (insulin resistance) |
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Term
| What is Type 2 diabetes associated with? |
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Definition
| obesity (so weight loss is an effective treatment) |
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Term
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Definition
| proliferation of capillaries and hemorrhaging at the retina may cause partial or complete blindness |
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Term
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Definition
| released by endocrine cells of the heart and promote the loss of Na+ and water at the kidneys and inhibit release of ADH and aldosterone; suppresses thirst and prevent antagonistic hormones from increased blood pressure |
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Term
| renin-angiotensin system (RAS) |
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Definition
| a hormone system that regulates blood pressure and water (fluid) balance |
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