Term
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Definition
| A belief or feeling that can predispose our response to someone or something. Attitudes have a cognitive component (belief), an affective component (feeling), and a behavioral component (action). |
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Term
| Our attitudes predict our actions when..... (4) |
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Definition
1. When external influences are minimized.
2. When the attitude is specific to the behavior.
3. When we are conscious of our attitudes as we act.
4. When attitudes are particularly strong. |
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Term
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Definition
We enact a role that then shapes our attitudes
Evidence: The Zimbardo Prison Study |
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Term
| Foot-in-the-door phenomenon |
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Definition
Agreeing to a small request makes it much more likely that we will agree to a large request (which we probably would not have otherwise agreed to)
Evidence: Freedman & Fraser studies
Pliner et. al
Low-ball technique |
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Term
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Definition
| Compliance without pressure |
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Term
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Definition
| If people were asked to wear a lapel pin for one day before a cancer charity drive, twice as many people donated. |
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Term
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Definition
| Used by salesmen illegally. Offer a price, seal the deal, then up the price - the consumer will probably still make the purchase. |
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Term
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Definition
Harming an innocent victim leads us to put them down. Opposite for nice acts. When we help someone, we like them more. The more we commit evil acts, the easier it is to do it.
Example: Interracial behavior and racial attitudes |
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Term
| Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) |
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Definition
| Tension that arises from discrepancy between attitude and behavior or two discrepant attitudes -- motivates us to change our attitude, especially if we cannot change our behavior. We are uncomfortable with the fact that they don't match up. |
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Term
| Types of Cognitive Dissonance |
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Definition
Insufficient Justification
Post-decisional dissonance
Over-justification (?) |
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Term
| Insufficient Justification |
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Definition
Reducing one's dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is insufficient
Attitude change when behavior is already done |
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Term
| Evidence for Insufficient Justification |
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Definition
Freedman - mild vs. severe threat to not play with toys
Brehm & Crocker - fasting study
Festinger & Carlsmith - peg and knob turning study |
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Term
| Post-Decisional Dissonance |
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Definition
When we have made an irrevocable decision between two equally attractive alternatives, we upgrade the chosen alternative and downgrade the not-chosen alternative
Evidence: Brehm study on choosing an appliance |
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Term
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Definition
Being promised and receiving a reward to perform an activity that is intrinsically enjoyable will diminish enjoyment of that activity.
Attitude change is lessening of interest.
Evidence: Lepper & Greene - good player award for playing with magic markers |
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Term
| Self-Perception Theory (Daryl Bem) |
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Definition
| When we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer hem as if we were someone else, observing ourselves and our behavior as an outsider would and inferring our own attitudes based on our behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| What the experimenter is manipulating, or what is hypothesized to account for changes in the dependent vairable. Independent variable is the cause or presumed cause. |
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Term
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Definition
| What the experimenter is measuring. Dependent variable is the effect. |
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Term
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Definition
| The exact way in which a variable is manipulated or measured. It is the way in which the researcher defines the variable in terms of the operations or techniques used to measure or manipulate the variable. An operational definition of a variable takes the abstract concept and translates it into some concrete form of manipulation and measurement. |
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Term
| Experimental Design Essentials (3) |
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Definition
Random assignments of subjects to (at least 2) conditions
Experimental control - manipulation of IV
Experimental control of all extraneous variables |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Experiment: Disadvantages |
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Definition
| Artificial situation, difficult / impossible to manipulate some variables because of ethical or practical considerations |
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Term
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Definition
Whatever doesn't meet the criteria for experimental falls under this category
Is there a relationship of association between two variables?
Can allow for prediction of one variable based on another, but cannot claim causation. |
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Term
| Correlational Design: Advantages |
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Definition
| Useful when impossible/unethical to manipulate a variable, easier/quicker/cheaper, useful at the beginning stages of a new area of research (if unsure of what the IV is, can observe several things in a preliminary study) |
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Term
| Correlational Design: Disadvantages |
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Definition
| No causal statements (even though advertisers and media try to do this) |
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Term
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Definition
The tendency to perceive oneself favorably - especially true on subjective, socially desirable and common dimensions.
Contributes to marital discord, worker dissatisfaction, and bargaining impasses. |
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Term
| Illusion of Invulnerability or Unrealistic Optimism |
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Definition
The belief that nothing bad can or will happen
Evidence: Burger & Burns |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or unsuccessful behaviors. |
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Term
| Self-Presentation/Impression Management: False Modesty |
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Definition
| Self deprecating statements to get others to say positive things about you |
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Term
| Self-Presentation/Impression Management: Self-Handicapping |
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Definition
Protection one's self-image by creating a handy excuse for failure. Some people are more likely to do this than others.
Evidence: Jones & Berglas |
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Term
| Self-Presentation/Impression Management: Self-Presentation |
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Definition
| The act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals |
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Term
| Self-Presentation/Impression Management:Self-Monitoring |
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Definition
Being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression.
High self-monitors: very concerned with self-presentations
Low self monitors: much less concerned |
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Term
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Definition
The hopelessness and resignation learned when a person or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events.
Strong association with depression.
Evidence: Martin Seligma - dogs and electric grid |
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Term
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Definition
| A sense that one is competent and effective. Biggest source of self-efficacy is mastery of experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| The extent to which people perceive their lives as internally controllable or externally controlled |
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Term
| Internal locus of control |
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Definition
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Term
| External locus of control |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Results in depression and a decrease in overall health
Evidence: Langer -- two different speeches at nursing homes |
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Term
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Definition
| Most helpful when it is specific and about a person rather than what they have |
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Term
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Definition
Fosters initiative, resilience, pleasant and positive feelings
High self-worth could be positive (less anger, drugs, etc) or negative (narcissism, terrorists, etc.) |
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Term
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Definition
| More important to happiness and well-being than high self-esteem. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rooted more in feeling good about who you are than in grades, etc. Conducive to long-term well-being. Based on self-acceptance and on seeing one's own personal virtues. Strong correlation between this and good relationships in life. |
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Term
| Gender: Who is miserable and why? |
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Definition
| 10% of men and 20% of women have experienced depression (of at least 4 weeks). 44% of college students said they had been depressed at some point during the school year to a point that it was hard to function. |
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Term
| Negative Attributional Style / Depressive Attributional Style |
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Definition
Internal vs. External
Stable over time vs. Unstable over time
Global vs. Specific |
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Term
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Definition
1. Depressed thinking (self-focus / self-blame) = internal, stable, global
2. Depressed mood
3. Cognitive and behavioral consequences
4. Negative experiences |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Depression: antidepressant medication (kills mood)
CBT (kills self-blaming)
Evidence: Bill O'Hanton
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Also: Improve self-esteem, social skills training, CBT, medication |
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Term
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Definition
The feeling of having no one to share with, care about / no one to care about you.
Adolescents tend to feel lonely when alone.
Men feel lonely without group interaction.
Women feel lonely without close relationships |
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Term
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Definition
Social anxiety characterized by self-consciousness and worry about what others think.
Tends to be paired with low self-esteem |
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Term
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Definition
Not a function of age, sex, race, money (except having necessities for life)
Happy people have high self-esteem, internal locus of control, optimism about the future, extroverted tendencies, close relationships, fulfilling/challenging work, and religion.
It is genetically influenced, but can be changed. |
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Term
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Definition
| When work and leisure engage one's skills and are a slight stretch - allow you to feel challenged and a sense of accomplishment |
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Term
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Definition
| Does money buy happiness? Nope. Only for those who don't have the essentials. After that, nothing really changes. |
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Term
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Definition
Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself to others
Evidence: Festinger (?) |
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Term
| Adaptation level phenomenon |
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Definition
The tendency to adapt to a given level of stimulation and thus to notice and to react to changes from that level
We always want more; we have difficulty being happy with what we have |
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Term
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Definition
Appreciating what you have dramatically helps positive mood
Gratitude journal
Counteracts adaptation |
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Term
| Why we need close relationships |
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Definition
Helps us cope better with life's stresses
Married people report being happier and are at a decreased risk of depression. Happiest in happy marriages. -- but maybe happy people create happy marriages. |
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Term
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Definition
| Being active in one's religion is a good predictor of happiness. Helps with coping with one's stresses, provides faith / hope for the future, ability to focus beyond the self, sense of community |
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Term
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Definition
| Positive Psychology Movement |
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