Term
Photosynthesis: Structures
Waxy cuticle |
|
Definition
1) Does not let water pass through so it protects the leaf
2) also keeps pathogens from getting in; preventing disease
on BOTH SIDES of leaf |
|
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Term
Photosynthesis: Structure
Epidermis |
|
Definition
| Protectice tissue ayer. Same as skin - protective |
|
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Term
Photosynthesis: Structure
Mesophyll |
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Definition
| Middle layer. Photosynthesis occurs here |
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Term
Photosynthesis: Structure
Palisade layer |
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Definition
| Upper layer. No air space between the cells. Very dense. Pakced with chloroplasts |
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Term
Photosynthesis: Structure
Bundle sheath cells |
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Definition
| transport tissue for the plant. "veins" Xylem clarries water, phloem carries sugars. |
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Term
Photosynthesis: Structure
Stomata and gaurd cells |
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Definition
| open and close to allow gas exchange. Guard cells cause the stomata to form |
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Term
Photosynthesis: Structure
Stroma |
|
Definition
| inside of the chloroplast. covers everything |
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Term
Photosynthesis:
What are thykaloid membranes and what happens here? |
|
Definition
| Area inside chloroplast. Membrane has chlorophyll molecules in it. Light-dependent reactions happen here (needs light). |
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Term
Photosynthesis:
What happens in the stroma?
|
|
Definition
| Light independent reactions (dark reaction, calvin cycle). Does not need light |
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Term
Photosynthesis:
Antenna complex |
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Definition
energy transferred, not the electron
electron can be moved and never go back, or it could go back. Donated electron, if it does not go back, it has to get repalced. It would come from water, just oxygen left. |
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Term
Photosynthesis:
Photosystem I and II |
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Definition
| Two light wavelength ranges that are functional Noncyclic. NADP becomes an electron acceptor and turns into NADPH and transfers the energy to another part of the system, called the dark reaction. |
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Term
Photosynthesis:
Electron transport |
|
Definition
All enzymes are on the thlakoid membrane
process is REVERSED from mitochondria. Complex faces the OUTSIDE of the thylakoid membrane.
Proton flow OPPOSITE of mitochondira |
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Term
Photosynthesis:
Three parts of the Calvin Cycle |
|
Definition
1) carbon fixation. CO2 is combined with another molecule to make glucose
2) reduction
3) regeneration
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Term
Photosynthesis:
PROCESS of Calvin Cycle |
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Definition
Must turn SIX times to make one glucose (C6) molecule because it only takes on CO2 at a time
6 RuBP (30 C). Enzyme Rubsico which ties the CO2 to the 5C moleucles to make 6C. End up with 6 carbon moleucles - splits in half. End up with 12 3C molecules and two of them will be tapped off to make glucose (6C). That will lead to 10 3C molecules. The 10 3C molecules will make 6 5C molecules because CO2 cannot bind with anything other than the 5C molecule, so it must be regenerated |
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Term
Photosynthesis:
Photorespiration increases oxidation by (4): |
|
Definition
High oxygen concentration
low carbon dioxide
low water or arid conditions
high temperatures |
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Term
Photosynthesis: C4 Plants
How do they separate light reactions and dark reactions |
|
Definition
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Term
Photosynthesis: C4
C4 strategy |
|
Definition
| In the mesophyllic cell, therre will be CO2 picked up and will be attached to another organic molecule. Then be transported into bundle sheath cell and by making this molecule, the organic moleucle goes into bundle sheath cells. Oxygen is produced in the mesophyllic cell |
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Term
Photosynthesis: CAM plants
How do these separate light reactions and dark reactions? |
|
Definition
|
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Term
Photosynthesis: CAM plants
Process of CAM photosynthesis
(pineapples) |
|
Definition
| Stores CO2 as a C4 organic molecule at night and releases high levels of CO2 during day; also conserves water. |
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Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication
a ligand |
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Definition
| This is required to effectively signal. It is an atom, ion, or molecule that binds to something |
|
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Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication
Direct contact |
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Definition
when cells are very close to each other, some of the molecules on the plasma membrane of one cell can be recognized by receptors on the plasma memrbane of adjacent cell.
gap junctions or plasmadesmata (plants) |
|
|
Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication
Hydrophilic ligand |
|
Definition
Hydrophilic: likes water, polar bond. Binds to a protein that is transmembrane and is then going to cause something to happen. Ligand --> receptor molecule --> signal --> cellular response
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Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication
Hydrophobic ligand |
|
Definition
goes through cell membrane. nonpolar - no transmembrane protein. Receptor inside the cytoplasm. Receptor --> signal --> celular response
examples. hormones, estrogen, testosterone |
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|
Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication
Paracrine signaling |
|
Definition
| chemical signaling between cells in which the effects are local and short-lived. Through extracellular fluid.Signal to different type of cell |
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Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication:
Endocrine signaling |
|
Definition
these are longer-lived that can affect cells very distant from releasing cells. Hormones.
Involves endocrine glands which make hormones, usually blood. |
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|
Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication:
Chemical synapse/ synaptic signaling |
|
Definition
| neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap and persis only briefly. Very short distance, but have to go through gap. Cell that will make neurotransmitter, and cel that will receive it. |
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|
Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication: Cell surface receptors
enzymnatic receptors |
|
Definition
when a signal molecule binds to the receptor, it activates the enzyme. In most cases, the enzyme is protein kinase and add phosphate groups to proteins.
Reception is on the outside; activity occurs on the inside. |
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|
Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication: Cell surface receptors
G protein activation |
|
Definition
| A ligand binds to the receptor and the receptor has proteins associated with it that are inactive and it has GDP and when the ligand attaches to the receptor, it will cause the GDP to go off and bereplaced by a GTP. Now there is energy. Once the G protein is activated, it will go to an interior protien that is on the membrane and will get a cellular response. MOST IMPORTANT mechanism in body. How poisons, drugs, and diseases work. |
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Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication:
What do intracellular receptors do? |
|
Definition
Regulate gene trascription
hydrophobic signals that go through membrane and into cell
hormone crosses membrane, gets to cytoplasma, links up with particular structure, modifies it, is activated, inhibitor is removed, goes through pore of nuclear membrane, turns on DNA, and causes protein synthesis |
|
|
Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication:
Kinase cascades lead to what |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Chapter 9: Cell Communication:
Second messengers |
|
Definition
A component of a signal cascade
second messengers are between the activated G protein and the response protein
examples: cyclic-AMP and cAMP |
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Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide
Binary fission |
|
Definition
Asexual reproduction by division of one cell into two nearly equal parts.
DNA is replicated and divides, then cell approximately splits in half |
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Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide
Nucleosomes |
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Definition
| DNA is surrounded by a core DNA molecule called a histone. DNA is negative because of a phosphate, while histones are positive. When the DNA is cirling the histone, the DNA is not accessible to be read or transcribed. |
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Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide
homologous chromosomes |
|
Definition
| one comes from father and one comes from mother. when they begin to replicate, they are also called sister chromatids as long as they are locked together at the centromere. When the sister chromatids split, they then become separate chromosomes |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Cell Cycle
G1 phase
|
|
Definition
| gap phase 1; cell growth and preparation for replication if it is going to divide. Getting all raw materials necessary so ultimately a cell division can occur |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Cell Cycle
S phase |
|
Definition
| Synthesis of DNA; duplicating the DNA matieral so when the cell divides, each daughter cell has a full complement of DNA material |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Cell Cycle Mitosis
G2 phase |
|
Definition
| gap phase 2; prep for mitosis; where chromosomes begin to condense so they are easily transferred |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Cell Cycle
M phase |
|
Definition
| Mitosis; partioning of chromosomes. When the nuclear material divides |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Cell Cycle
C phase |
|
Definition
| cytokinsis; cell division; taking the cell and splitting it in half. Much different than binary fission |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Cell Cycle
G0 phase |
|
Definition
| resting state early in G1, nothing else is going to happen. Most of the cells in mature body are G0 cells |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide
Kinetochores |
|
Definition
On the center of the chromosome. the protein part without DNA where it ataches to microtubules. Must be attached toa microtubule if chromosmes need to go to right location.
Responsible for non-disjunction in meiosos I |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Mitosis
interphase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Mitosis
Prophase |
|
Definition
| chromosomes condense and become visible; chromosomes appear as two sister chromatids held together at the centromere; cytoskeleton is dissembled; spindle fibers begin to form; golgi and ER are dispersed; nuclear membrane breaks down |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Mitosis
Pro-metaphase |
|
Definition
| chromsomes become attched to microtubules at the kinetochore; and chromosomes move to equator of cell |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Mitosis
metaphase |
|
Definition
| all chromosmes are aligned at equator of cell; called the metaphase plate (or equatorial plate) |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Mitosis
anaphase |
|
Definition
| proteins holding centromeres of sister chromatids are degraded, freeing individual chromsomes; chromosomes are pulled ot opposite poles (anaphase A) and spindle poles move apart (anaphase B) |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Mitosis
Telophase |
|
Definition
| chromosomes are custered at opposite poles and de-condense; nuclear envelopes re-form around chromosmes; golgi complex and ER re-form |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide
Polar microtubules |
|
Definition
spindle proteins
push the poles apart during anaphase. overlap each other, have motor complexes tha tpush them apart, and start going opposite of each other. NOT attached to a chromosome |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide
Kinetochore microtubule |
|
Definition
spindle protein
pulls the chromosomes to opposite ends of the poles. attached to a chromosome |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide
cycling and MPF |
|
Definition
| cylin works with an enzyme to create a maturation promoting factor (MPF). MPF activity is greatest in mitosis, as in cyclin |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide
Cdk-cyclin complex |
|
Definition
involves a kinase and a phosphorylated substrate
Cdk = cyclin dependent kinase.
Cdk + cyclin = MPF
location of phosphate is important. if phosphate is at one side, it is inactivated. if it is at the other, it is actiavted |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Checkpoints
G1/S checkpoint |
|
Definition
Is there sufficient energy, etc for division?
Is there any DNA damage?
External messages can affect this point (such as hormones).
|
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Checkpoints
G2/M Checkpoint
|
|
Definition
| Is DNA replication successful? |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide: Checkpoints
spindle checkpoint |
|
Definition
| are chromsomes properly attached to kinetochore microtubules at metaphase? |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide
cell proliferation - signaling pathway |
|
Definition
| messages can come from outside the cell and affect what happens inside (hormones) and will affect DNA activity, and can affect cell division |
|
|
Term
Chapter 10: How Cells Divide
What does Mitosis result in? |
|
Definition
TWO daughter cells that are:
Quantitatively AND qualitatively the same as the mother cell (with reference to nuclear material) |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
Gametes |
|
Definition
| egg and sperm , each contain two chromosomes |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
Somatic cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
zygote |
|
Definition
| egg and pserm fuse to prouce this. |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
crossing over |
|
Definition
during prophase I
literally allows the homologues to exchange chromosomal material |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
chiasmata |
|
Definition
sites of crossing over
these sites of contact are maintained until anaphase I |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
Prophase I |
|
Definition
| chromosomes begin to condense, spindle fibers begin to form. Crossing over occurs |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
metaphase I |
|
Definition
| pairs of homologous chromosomes align along the metaphase plate. kinetochore attaches |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
anaphase I |
|
Definition
| kinetochore microtubules shorten and homologous pairs are pulled apart. sister chromatids do NOT separate. |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
telophase I |
|
Definition
nuclear envelope re-forms
two resulting cells have half the number of chromosomes as mother cell. Each nucleus contains two chromosomes |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
Prophase II |
|
Definition
| new spindle apparatus forms in each cell and nuclear envelope breaks down |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
metaphase II |
|
Definition
| completed spindle apparatus is in place in each cell. Chromosomes consisting of sister chromatids align along metaphase plate. Kinetochore microtubules attach to sister chromatids |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
anaphase II |
|
Definition
| Microtubules shorten, centromeres split, and sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles |
|
|
Term
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
telophase II |
|
Definition
nuclear membrane re-form
four haploid cells result. No two cells are alike. |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
Hybridization |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
test cross |
|
Definition
an individual with unknown genotype is crossed with the homozygous recessive genotype.
ALWAYS 1:1 ratio for monohybrid cross |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
purine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
pyramidine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
Semiconservative model |
|
Definition
| one strand of the parental duplex remains intact in daughter strands; a new complimentary strand is built for each parental strand consisting of new molecules |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
DNA polymerase |
|
Definition
enzyme that actually matches the existing DNA bases with complementary nucleotides and then links the nucleotides together to make a new strand.
requires a primer to begin synthesis |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
helicases |
|
Definition
| enzymes that use energy from ATP to unwind the DNA template |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
topoisomerases |
|
Definition
| enzymes that can alter the topological state of DNA. Relieve the torsional strain caused by unwinding and to prevent this supercoiling from happening |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
DNA gyrase |
|
Definition
| topoisomerase involved in DNA replication |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
leading strand |
|
Definition
3'-5' direction
continuous |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
lagging strand |
|
Definition
5' to 3' direction
discontinuous
DNA fragments synthezied here are Okazaki fragments |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
DNA ligase |
|
Definition
| seals the 'nicks' and eventually joins the Okazaki fragments into complete strands |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
replisome |
|
Definition
| enzyme involved in DNA replication from a macromoleuclar assembly |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
What is attached to carbon on 5' end |
|
Definition
| P attached to carbon 5 of ribulose |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
what is attached to carbon on 3' end |
|
Definition
| free hydroxyl attached to carbon 3 |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
telomeres |
|
Definition
| protect the ends of chromosmes from nucleases and maintain the integrity of linear chromosomes |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
primase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
DNA polymerase III |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
DNA polymerase I |
|
Definition
| erases primer and fills gaps |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
photo repair |
|
Definition
| visible light needed for repaircuts out the damaged part and repairs it |
|
|
Term
DNA: The Genetic Material
excision repair |
|
Definition
enzyme that does not need light
finds erros, cuts it out, and repairs it |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
allele |
|
Definition
| a gene located at a particular loci on chromosome. two alleles for every characteristic that your body exhibits |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
incomplete dominance |
|
Definition
| intermiediate p henotype because the effect of both genes are mixed in the heterozygote |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
1:2:1 ratio |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
co-dominant gene |
|
Definition
both alleles are fully expressed (like blood type)
multiple alleles |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
law of segregation |
|
Definition
| alternative alleles segregate during gamete production |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
independent assortment |
|
Definition
| homologous chromosmes randomly line up at metaphse I and separate in anaphase I |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
pedigrees |
|
Definition
| look at parents and their siblings to get an idea of their parents |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
polygenic inheritance |
|
Definition
| more than one gene affecting a particular trait; human height |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
pleioptrophy |
|
Definition
one gene has multiple effects
eg. sickle cell anemia |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
multiple alleles |
|
Definition
is a function of populations
blood type |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
co-dominance |
|
Definition
| both genes are expressed at the same time |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
epistasis |
|
Definition
| one gene suppresses the action of another gene |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
sex-linked |
|
Definition
| a trait determined by a gene on the X chromosome |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
autosomes |
|
Definition
| 22 out of the 23 chromosomes that are perfectly matched in males and femails |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
Barr body |
|
Definition
| inactivated X chromosome is highly condnesed |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
nondisjunction |
|
Definition
| failure of homologues or sister chromatids to separate properly during meisosis |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
trisomics |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
aneuploidy |
|
Definition
| gain or loss of a chromosome |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
monosomics |
|
Definition
| humans who have lot even one copy of an autosome |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
X chromosome disjunction |
|
Definition
| when X chromosomes fail to separate, some the gametes produced possess both X chromosomes; the other gametes have no sex chromosome and are designated 'O' |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
Y chromosome nondisjunction |
|
Definition
| the Y chromsome cal fail to separate, leading to formation of YY gametes |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
1:1 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
3:1 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
9:3:3:1 |
|
Definition
dihybrid with complete dominance
3:1 x 3:1 |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
1:2:1 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
4:2:2:2:2:1:1:1:1 |
|
Definition
| dihybrid incomplete dominance for each |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
9:3:4 |
|
Definition
dihyrbid epistasis
One gene is affecting expression of the other
lab retriever coat color |
|
|
Term
Patterns of Inheritance
9:7 |
|
Definition
epistasis
different types of expression |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
transcription |
|
Definition
| going from DNA template strand to mRNA strand |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
translation |
|
Definition
| from mRNA to tRNA (proteins) |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
rRNA |
|
Definition
reads mRNA and forms polypeptide
they will make a protien |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
tRNA |
|
Definition
| carries a specific amino acid tot he mRNA (can carry only one); has anticodon |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
codon |
|
Definition
| a tri-nucleotide sequence of mRNA; complement of DNA |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
anticodon |
|
Definition
| tri-nucleotide sequence of tRNA; complement of mRNA |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
TATA box |
|
Definition
| promoter region and binding site for transcription factors |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
transcription factor |
|
Definition
| a protein that binds to specific sequences of DNA and thereby controls the transcription of genetic information from DNA to mRNA |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
RNA P II |
|
Definition
| enzyme that controls transcription |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
Poly A tail |
|
Definition
| prevents degradation of 3' end |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
cap |
|
Definition
| 5' cap at end (gtp) which protects against degradation and will be used to initiate translation and want to make sure everything will be read in right direction |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
exons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
introns |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
snRNPs |
|
Definition
| small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
splicesomes |
|
Definition
| can recognize intron and exon juncitons and may also recognize intron sequences |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
A site |
|
Definition
| entrance of new tRNA with AA |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
P site |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
E site |
|
Definition
| exit site for 'empty' tRNA |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
termination |
|
Definition
a nonsense code, or STOP
factor tells the rRNA that it is completed, and it releases that particular polypeptide |
|
|
Term
Genes and How They Work
SRP |
|
Definition
| Signal recognition particle. srp arrests elongation and docks on the ER where synthesis of secretory proteins is complete. these float around in cytoplasm |
|
|
