Briefly describe two of the true discoveries made by  Franz Joseph Gall

1. He talked about cortical regions of the brain, describing the corpus collosum fairly accurately- connective band between the hemispheres of the brain

2. Knew that cortex was folded up to conserve space

1. cranial

2. cervical

3. Thoracic

4. Lumbar

5. Sacral

4 ceberal lobes: 

1. Frontal lobe—conscious thought; damage can result in mood changes, social differences, etc. The frontal lobes are the most uniquely human of all the brain structures.
2. Parietal lobe—plays important roles in integrating sensory information from various senses, and in the manipulation of objects; portions of the parietal lobe are involved with visuospatial processing
3. Occipital lobe—sense of sight; lesions can produce hallucinations
4. Temporal lobe—senses of smell and sound, as well as processing of complex stimuli like faces and scenary

basic logic used in PET scans and FMRI; the difference in brain activity in the scans can be cimputed & represented  as a color-coded "difference images" that shows the areas of the brain that were most active during the experimental condition. 

Difference images from several subjects can be added together, averaged, and used to make a "mean difference image" that shows the most active brain areas for all subjects in an experiment. Subtracts out visual activity not related to experiment. 

1. Averaging criticisms: activation varies throughout the brain; averaging them together can wash out your results

2. Appropriate control criticism: your choice of the control situation will affect how you read your results. Use multiple controls to fix this. 

3. Home Simpson criticism: you may be thinking of other things that could cause activation other than what you're being tasked with.

- projects contralaterally (to opposite side of brain)

- has large-diameter neurons

 - carried precision information about form, position, timing

- projects bilaterally (to both sides of brain)

-  has small-diameter neurons

-  carries less precise versions of form, position, timing

 - also carries information about temperature and pain

left occipital lobe is active in 

critical to reading visual word form

left angular gyrus / area 39 active in

connection from print to sound. 

small gap between synaptic knob and dendrite of neighboring cell. First named by Sherrington in 1897

scan technique for examining brain function by combining tomography with injections of radioactive substances used by the brain; PET maps radioactive tracers to produce images of brain activity. 

Objective is to obtian images of brain's activity rather than structure

A passive and noninvasive functional brain-imaging technique that measures the tiny magnetis fields produced by active neurons, in order to identify regions of the brain that are particularly active during a given task.

Excellent for studying rapidly shifting patterns of brain activity in cortical circuits, especially when paired with MRI. 

1. Short-lasting pain causes us to withdraw from the source, often reflexively, thus preventing further damage
2. Long-lasting pain promoted behaviors, such as sleep, inactivity, grooming, feeding, and drinking, that promote recuperation
3. The expression of pain serves as a social signal in other animal species

3 small bones (incus, malleus, and stapes) that transmit sounds across the middle ear, form the tympanic membrane to the oval window

malleus = hammer

incus = anvil

stapes = stirrup

1. Place Theory: argues that pitch is encoded in the physical location of the activated receptors along the basilar membrane
2. Volley Theory: proposes that the frequency of auditory stimuli is directly encoded into the firing pattern of auditory neurons

•   indistinct noises (hums, murmurs, etc)

• annoying

• usually perceived as not real