-       Situation

-       Emotional experience

-       Emotional Expression

Ps reported similar subjective experience whether they expressed it or suppressed it.

(ps were able to control their emotional expression)

(skin conductance highest for trauma condition, then silence condition, and lowest for intellectualization and denial condition.)

Tomaka et al (1997): Math test --> challenge vs threat study            

(ps who felt challenged experienced faster cardiac activity and lower peripheral resistance)

(watching film with suppressor was stressful and had social costs for the suppressor)

(repressive emotional style led to lower maritcal satsfaction and more negative feelings)

Eschenbeck et al (2007): sex differences in behavior when stressed 

(flight attendants always supposed to be happy, tax collectors supposed to be stoic)

Antecedent-focused Emotional regulation (Gross)            

modifying emotional impact early in generation of emotion. 

-Situation selection

            -Situation modification

            -Attention deployment

            -cognitive reappraisal

Modification of experiential, expression, or phys. aspects if emotion.

Factors that interact with main effects and qualify a basic principle.  Could be sex, contect, nationality, etc

Deindividualizaion and emotional contagion.

anonymity made both negative and positive norms more effective.  An. KKK increased shock given, an. nurse decreased shock given.  Supports deindividualization.

            -Facial Feedback and imitation

            -Self-perception

            -Social comparison

            -Empathy

ps who inhibited showed less amusement via self-report and EMG.  PS who did not inhibit reported higher amusement, via self-report and EMG.)

ps who heard story in slightly sad voice reported less happiness than ps who heard story with slightly happy voice.  Cognitive load did not influence either way, meaning that emotional contagion is automatic.)

young Germans feel guilt for WWII atrocities.  Young French felt shame after trial of Maurice Papon.

group membership emotions sig. different from indiv. emotions.  Stronger group identification = more convergence toward the group.

Gordijn et al (2001): students at other university unfairly treated

ps more angry and less happy when common group membership was made salient.

European ps placed in westerners vs Arabs condition expressed more fear, more info seeking behavior, etc that thos in European vs. American condition.

Crisp et al (2006): English soccer fans. 

ps how highly identified with soccer team felt more anger after losses and felt more aggression after loss and win

Doosje et al (1998): Dutch occupation of Indonesia.            

regardless of identification with dutch, ps felt worse when neg. aspects of occupation were emphasized

Prescriptive gender stereotype beliefs:            

What people say others would be like, how they would tell people to act.

Women are more emotional, more expressive, express more submissive emotions, higher in emotional intensity, use irrational emotions for judgments, express emotions more readily.

Men should not express emotions, particularly sadness.  Should be stoic.

“female” infants seen as displaying fearful reactions, “male” infants seen as expressing more angry reactions.

worried, sad, submissive, and delighted faces attributed to females, angry faces attributed to men

            Girl babies = more docile

            Boy babies = more active

            -baby girls – more social referencing of FE, more empathetic reactions.

            -Baby girls develop emotionally earlier and learn emotional language earlier

-       parents express more pos. emotions to girs

-       use more complex emotional language with girls

-       more tolerant of aggression from boys and shyness from girls

females more expressive and sent clearer messages

women expressed more emotions in both studies (even anger), but no differences in reported emotion

sex differences are prevalent in global, retrospective reports, but not in momentary, on-line reports à assessed via questionnaire and then diary collection)

males and females had comparable activation

observers saw no differences in actual game, but large differences in hypothetical game.  Ratings of self showed no sex differences, but average ratings of others showed differences

expectations and differences in emotional awareness

-       music preceded language – music and dance used to express emotion.

-       Music and language co-evolved. (music providing emotional component)

-       Music followed language (since it has complex grammar like structure.)

preferred Mozart to heavy metal, but preferred silence to Mozart

Tamarin music: composed to the parameters of Tamarin communication 

tam. responded with increased movement, social behavior and anxious behavior to fear music.  Reduced movement and more orienting and foraging behavior to calm music

To communicate and induce emotional changes

cats respond more positively and quickly to cat music.  Young cats more responsive than old cats.

-       Looking for fundamentals

-       Looking for components

-       Looking for culture

-       a learned set of shared beliefs

-       established beliefs, values and norms

-       affects the behavior of a relatively large group of people

-       Language

-       Institutions

-       Material productions

-       Symbolic productions

Self-concepts or identities are called interdependent.  People define themselves in terms of their membership in groups.

Self-concepts or identities are called independent.  People define themselves in terms of their personally defining characteristics.

-       emotions moderated to promote smooth social functioning

-       less expressivity (particularly of neg. emotions)

-       perceptions of emotions of the individual perceived as influenced by others in the group

Uses implied meanings which arise from the settings; assumes rather than communicates shared meanings

focuses on literal meanings of words, independent of setting    

defined by self-respect and respect of family or group.  Avoid shame. Typically more aggressive and more violent reactions.

male ps from Southern US reacted to insult with more aggression and higher physiological arousal.)

idea of yin and yang prevalent in most Asian cultures (Daoism).  Pleasant feelings associated with unpleasant feelings, and a balance between the two is striven for.

Happiness is the desired emotion; it is right to pursue happiness.

When Americans report pos. emotions they don’t report neg. emotions.  Asians report both at a time, sometimes.

Objective events can differ in frequency of assoc. with certain emotions across culture.  Differences in feelings towards death, birth, relationships, etc.

some appraisals are seen as automatic à pleasantness and certainty.  Others are cognitively demanding à responsibility and control

Masuda et al (2005): perception of emotion of central figure

Japanese saw the figure’s emotion as more influenced by surrounding group than Americans did.)

like languages, dialects and accents are added to facial expressions according to culture.

Support for Montesqieu.  Esp. in Europe and Asia where there is substantially more stable populations and less immigration.

found that Irish Americans were more facially expressive.)

Americans showed same phys. Responses as West Sumatrans)

Tsai and Levenson (1997): Dating couples, Chinese and American 

should similar phys. reactions during emotional conversation

people hold strong beliefs about phys. changes during emotion – these schemas are similar in Belguim, Bolivia, Indonesia, Italy and US

-       Hippocrates: “passions” could cause disease

-       Galen: emotion assoc. with bodily fluids

-       1919: soldiers coming back with shell shock”

-       1930: Rats

-       1950’s: Psychosomatic medicine

-       1990: complementary and alternative medicine

-       2000” integrative medicine (psychology, spiritually)

Stress and health (Selye, 1936): 

“poor” treatment of rats, saw effects of stress

-       Alarm

-       Resistance

-       Exhaustion

hippocampal damage (chronic stress), heart disease, lowers immune system)

stress lasts month or more, stress in interpersonal relationships, and stress at work

-       noise

-       bereavement and loss

-       work related problems

-       poverty, powerlessness, and racism

potential stressor --> primary appraisal --> secondary appraisal (probably most important because its our assessment of our ability to cope) --> stress (physio, cognitive, emotional, behavioral)

health habits and medical compliance

Dienstbier (1989-1991): Toughness 

low baseline levels of SAM and HPA.  SAM high in challenge, HPA low.  Rapid SAM recovery.  More rapid SAM and HPA recovery as function of exposure to stressor    

Workplace wellness program – meditation group reported increased pos. emotions, as did life satisfaction, and a decrease in illness symptoms.

men with highest hostility scores as med. students had higher rate of heart disease 25 years later.