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Definition
| Strong beliefs, strong feelings, social ideals, personal ideals |
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Term
| Three types of factual claims |
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| 1. Debatable Claims, 2. Causal relationships, 3. Predictions. |
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| about statements that either are or are not true, or things that did or did not happen |
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| argue that a particular phenomenon is the result of something that came before it and led to it |
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| contend that something will happen in the future |
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| Definition/Classification claims |
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| necessary when we must decide what kind of entity or phenomenon we are dealing with, in other words, when we must categorize it |
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| argument about right or wrong, moral or immoral, beautiful or ugly |
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| the standards used for making evaluations or judgments |
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| deal with problems and solutions, assessed by terms such as should or would |
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| Two major types of policy arguments |
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| argue supporting status quo, argue against the status quo |
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| Monroe's Motivated Sequence |
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Definition
| a call to action in five steps: attention, need, satisfaction visualization, and action |
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Definition
| begin by gaining the audience’s attention and drawing it to your topic |
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Definition
| similar to the problem part of a problem-solution speech |
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Term
| Characteristics of "Need" |
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Definition
• Statement: tell the nature of the problem
• Illustration: give a relevant detailed example or examples
• Ramifications: provide additional support such as statistics or testimony that show the extent of the problem
• Pointing: show the direct relationship between the audience and the problem |
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| shows it extent and its effect on the audience and then propose a solution that will satisfy the need |
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| Characteristics of "Satisfaction" |
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Definition
• Statement: briefly state the attitude, belief, or action you want the audience to adopt
• Explanation: make you proposal understandable
• Theoretical Demonstration: show the logical connection between the need and its satisfaction
• Practically: uses facts, figures, and testimony to show that the proposal has worked effectively or that the belief has been proved correct
• Meeting objections: show that your proposal can overcome your listeners’ potential objections |
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Term
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Definition
| you ask listeners to imagine the future, both if they enact the proposal and if they fail to do so |
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| Characteristics of "visualization" |
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Definition
• Positive: describe a positive future if your plan is put into action
• Negative: have listeners imagine themselves in an unpleasant situation if they fail to put your solution into effect
• Contrast: compare the negative results of not enacting your plan with the positive results your plan will produce |
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Term
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Definition
| call for a specific action |
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Term
| Characteristics of "action" |
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Definition
• Name: the specific, overt action, attitude, or belief you are advocating
• State: your personal intention to act
• End: with impact |
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Term
| Direct method pattern (statement of reasons pattern): |
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Definition
| makes a claim and then states reasons that provide a rationale for the ideas |
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Definition
| motivate the audience to do something |
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| Comparative advantages pattern |
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Definition
| shows the superiority of a proposal by comparing its advantages to those of the competition; useful for value speeches |
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| Criteria Satisfaction pattern |
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Definition
| good for value or definition speeches; sets forth standards for judgment or for inclusion in a category and then shows how the proposal meets or exceeds these standards or fits into category |
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Definition
| points out shortcomings of other proposals and then demonstrates why your proposal is the one logical solution remaining |
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Definition
| try to increase the audience’s understanding of the issue and the proposed solution or solutions |
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Term
| Types of Persuasive Patterns |
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Definition
| 1. Problem Solving Pattern, 2.Monroe’s Motivated Sequence, 3.Direct Method Pattern, 4. Comparative advantage pattern, 5. Criteria Satisfaction Pattern, 6. Negative Method Pattern |
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Term
| How to Narrow your persuasive purpose |
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Definition
| 1. Focusing on beliefs and actions, 2. focusing on values, 3. focusing on attitudes |
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Term
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Definition
• To convince: a persuasive purpose that targets audience beliefs
o Begin with logical appeals
o Prove your competence by being knowledgeable about the facts
o Use comparatively fewer emotional appeals |
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Term
| Unmotivated or unfocused audiences |
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Definition
• Apathy: indifference due to lack of motivation
o When your audience is unmotivated, provide good reasons to act
o When listeners lack focus, provide a detailed plan that spells out specific steps they can take to implement your proposals |
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Term
| Cognitive dissonance theory |
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Definition
| says that humans seek stability or equilibrium; when faced with inconsistency they seek psychological balance; this may motivate them to change in order to be consistent |
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Term
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Definition
inconsistency or clash
o Support faltering beliefs by concentrating on logical appeals, using as much persuasive evidence as you can muster to help them resolve their doubts
o When you hope behaviors will change, appeal to emotions such as honesty and sincerity |
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Definition
o Help listeners maintain a positive attitude about their accomplishments
o Relate personally to their fundamental beliefs and values |
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Definition
• Establish the criteria you are using to make your evaluation
• Use emotional appeals such as examples that help listeners identify with the issue and link it to related values that you can agree on, such as fairness or freedom
• Appeal to authority if your audience accepts your source as authoritative |
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Term
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Definition
| complex mental states that involve beliefs, emotions, and actions |
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Term
| Theory of Reasoned Action |
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Definition
links behavioral intentions with attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control; assumes we rationally weigh costs and benefits of our actions
• Attitudes are our positive or negative evaluations of the behavior in question; they include both a mental and an emotional component
• Subjective norms are our perceptions of what the people who are important to us think we should do
• Perceived behavioral control is our opinion about our ability to accomplish the behavior in question |
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Term
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Definition
| intentional, purposeful speaking that involves reason and judgment |
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Term
| Toulmin's reasoning model |
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Definition
o Claims: a debatable point or proposal you want your audience to accept
o Grounds, data, or evidence: evidence offered to support a claim
• Assertions: claims put forth without any supporting evidence
o Warrants: justification or reasoning that connects the claim and the evidence
o Backing: reasons given to support the warrant
o Qualifiers: words and phrases that limit or narrow the scope of a claim (in most cases, usually) |
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Term
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Definition
| verbal arguments, arguments from the words of the speech itself |
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| comparison of one item that’s less familiar or unknown to something concrete and familiar |
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| comparing two things that are generally different but share a recognizable similarity |
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| Parallel Case of literal analogy |
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Definition
| comparing likenesses between two similar things; arguing that what happened in a known case will likely happen in a similar case |
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Definition
| starting with specific instances or examples then formulating a reasonable conclusion |
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Term
| Testing Inductive Reasoning |
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Definition
• Are enough cases represented to justify the conclusion? Or are you formulating a conclusion based on too few cases?
• Are the cases typical? Do they represent the average members of the population to which the generalization are applied?
• Are the examples from the time period under discussion, or are they out of date? |
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Definition
| starting with a principle (the premise) and applying it to a specific case |
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| Testing Deductive Reasoning |
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Definition
• For the conclusion to be valid, the premises must be true or highly probable
• To be reasonable, the conclusion must follow from the premise |
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Term
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Definition
| linking two factors in such as way that the first occurs before the second and regularly leads to the second as a matter of rule |
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Definition
• Is there a real connection? Does one follow as a result of the first or do the two events simply exist together in time?
• Is this the only cause? The most important cause? Or are there other factors?
• Is the cause strong enough for the effect? |
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Term
| Types of Logical Fallacies |
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Definition
• Fallacy: failure in logical reasoning that leads to unsound or misleading arguments
• Unsupported assertion: a claim presented without evidence
• Ad populum or bandwagon: an appeal to popular opinion
• Ad hominem (personal attack): an attack on the messenger rather than the message
• Post hoc: a fallacy of causation, a false cause
• Overgeneralization: a fallacy of induction; generalizing too broadly, given the evidence
• Red herring argument: introducing a side issue with the intent of drawing attention from the real issue
• False analogy: comparing two things too dissimilar to warrant the conclusion drawn
• False dichotomy: an either-or fallacy that ignores other reasonable options |
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Definition
| internal, individualized factor that results when we understand how topics affect our lives in personal ways |
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Definition
| appeals or reasons directed toward audience emotions |
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| Appeals to positive emotion |
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Definition
| by appealing to positive feelings and values, you can often motivate your listeners to accept and act on your claims |
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| Appels to negative emotion |
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Definition
| fear, anger, and guilt, for instance, can motivate us to avoid real dangers |
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Term
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Definition
• Basic needs: link you topic to your listeners’ basic survival needs
• Security and safety: explain how to gain peace of mind, job security, safety, etc.
• Love and belonging: show how your topic helps your listeners be better friends, creates a stronger community, etc.
• Esteem: demonstrate that you respect your listeners, and mention their accomplishments when appropriate
• Self-actualization: challenge your listeners to look beyond themselves and reach out to others |
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Term
| Understanding Complex Motivations |
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Definition
• Sometimes you must choose between two desirable goals or feelings
• Motivates vary according to our circumstances
• Our responses often come out of mixed motives
• Motivation are often group centered |
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Definition
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| personal credibility or character traits that make a speaker believable and worthy of the audience’s confidence |
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• Intelligence
• Sound reasoning
• Composure |
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| concerns shared among speakers and listeners that help overcome divisions and bring diverse people together |
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| • specific areas or concerns that both speaker and audience consider important |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Identification (co-orientation), 2. Common ground |
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Definition
| inviting audiences to enter and understand the rhetor’s world and then share their own perspective; focuses on mutual understanding and mutual influence, not winning or change per se |
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Definition
| creatively framing a divisive issue or viewpoint in a different way that may be less threatening |
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Definition
| listening without interrupting or inserting oneself into the talk |
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| Reversability of perspectives |
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Definition
| an attempt to think from the other’s perspective as well as one’s own |
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Definition
| failure in logical reasoning that leads to unsound or misleading arguments |
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Definition
| a claim presented without evidence |
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Definition
| an appeal to popular opinion |
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Definition
| an attack on the messenger rather than the message |
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Definition
| a fallacy of induction; generalizing too broadly, given the evidence |
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Definition
| a fallacy of causation, a false cause |
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Definition
| introducing a side issue with the intent of drawing attention from the real issue |
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Definition
| comparing two things too dissimilar to warrant the conclusion drawn |
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| an either-or fallacy that ignores other reasonable options |
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