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Definition
| An umbrella term use to describe the set of theoretical accounts of how people assign causes to the events around around them. |
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| linking an event to a cause, such as inferring that a personality trait was responsible for a behavior |
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| a person's habitual way of explaining events |
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| degree that cause of a certain event is linked to the self |
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| degree that cause is linked to an external situation |
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| degree that the cause of something is something that will never change |
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| degree that cause is something temporary |
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| the degree that the cause is seen as affecting multiple domains in life |
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| the degree that the cause is restricted to affecting one specific domain |
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| pessimistic attribution style |
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Definition
-when one has internal, stable, global attributions habitually made for negative events
-"its my fault" "I'm never going to be able to" |
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behavioral attributions are made by weighing information about the potential causes of behavior (internal or external)
-"weighing options" |
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| what would most people do in the given situation |
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| whether an individual behavior is unique to a given situation or whether that person would behave the same way in a different situation |
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| whether an individual acts the same way in a similar situation |
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| High external attributions |
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Definition
External attributions are likely when consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency are high
EX: football game yelling
-we assume it is because they are at the football game, not natural screamers |
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| High internal attributions |
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Definition
Internal attributions are likely when consensus and distinctiveness are low but consistency is high
EX: person laughing at funeral
-not everyone is doing it, person might do it at other situations, but only one doing it
-we assume something is wrong with that person |
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Definition
| thinking about something "if" something else had happened/ "if only this was different" |
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-the idea that people should assign reduced weight to a particular cause of behavior if another plausible cause might have produced it
-saying something didnt happen because of one thing because another plausible thing couldve made it happen |
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the idea that people should assign greater weight to a particular cause of behavior if other causes are present that would produce the opposite outcome
-if something is there that would make the opposite happen, then it happening has to be this! |
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Definition
an emotional reaction to an event that is proportional to how easy it is to imagine the event not happening
EX: spouse dying on plane crash
-plane originally selected then dies vs switching flights at last minute and dies. switching at last minute is considered worse because it "almost" didnt happen |
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Definition
tendency to attribute failures to external causes and successes to internal causes
-leads to positive self esteem |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| tendency to believe behavior is due to a persons traits and not emphasize enough the situation causes present |
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| altruistic response vs selfish response |
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Definition
altruistic: i try to be sensitive to other's feelings all the time
selfish: There are too many sensitive people in the world already. No point in being understanding |
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| causes of fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
motivated to believe that people get what they deserve in life:
-bad people get bad things, good people get good things
-makes people feel less vulnerable to external factors |
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| actor-observer difference |
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Definition
people make different attributions when they are talking about either making them themselves versus making them about others
-the "actor" making attributions about himself explains behavior to situational factors
-the observer making attributions about others marks behavior usually due to internal/ dispositional qualities |
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| culture differences in attribution |
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Definition
-japanese attribute more towards surroundings
-americans attribute more towards internal factors |
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| fundamental attribution error and culture |
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Definition
the fundamental attribution error is less prevalent in collectivist cultures (like Japanese)
-while individualists more likely to attribute behaviors to dispositions |
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| American sub culture attribution |
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Definition
| Mexican American and Puerto Rice children make fewer internal/dispostional inferences than American Caucasians |
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when someone is connected to an independent and an interdependent culture, their attribution style (internal vs external) changes depending on culture context
EX: hong kong
-has Chinese collectivist culture influences and American individualist ones |
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Definition
| Brief, specific psychological and physiological responses that help humans meet goals, many of which are social goals |
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the ways people evaluate events and objects in their environment based on their relation to current goals
EX:
-"thats unfair" leads to anger
-"thats dangerous" leads to fear |
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distinct theme that define the core of each emotion
-EX: danger or offense or fairness
-core-relational themes are similar across cultures
-appraising something unfair may lead to anger in any culture |
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an initial, automatic positive or negative, appraisal of an event or circumstance
-the initial pleasant or unpleasant feeling |
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| secondary appraisal stage |
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Definition
later appraisals concern why we feel the way we do and how we respond to it.
-the thoughts after the initial feelings |
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| evolutionary approaches to emotion |
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Definition
emotions are biologically based behavioral adaptations meant to promote survival and reproduction
-EX: emotions are cross culturally universal |
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| cultural approaches to emotion |
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Definition
| emotions are influences by views of self, social values, and social roles, which cary culture to culture. |
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| principle of serviceable habits |
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Definition
Charles Darwin's thesis that emotional expressions are remnants of full blown behaviors that helped our primate and mammalian predecessors meet important goals in the past.
-EX: monkeys screamed when angry, lead to our "angry face" |
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| Darwin hypothesized that all emotions are universal, given that all humans have the same facial expressions and express emotions similarly |
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| Universality of Facial Expression |
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Definition
| Facial expressions are recognizes cross culturally, as people can pick up on what emotions others are feeling regardless of culture |
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Definition
Cultures emphasizes and frequently express some emotions more than others
-collectives express more shame and embarrassment, whereas individualists express more pride |
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culturally specific ways that individuals from different cultures express particular emotions
EX: In India, people bite their tongue when they are embarrassed. |
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| cultural rules that govern when and how particular emotions should be expressed |
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Definition
Touch can promote closeness in social relationships
-pleasurable and rewarding
-releases oxytocin |
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| the pleasure hormone released from touching |
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-touching reduces stress hormone
-stress reduction is greater the more you know someone. |
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-In primates touching increases likelihood of sharing food
-In humans, touch increases cooperation and compliance with requests
-the more you touch someone the more likely they will agree to something |
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-People will unconsciously mimic others, especially emotions
EX: laugh when others laugh, blush when others blush |
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Definition
When doing amusing tasks, friends will mimic each others laughter, but strangers will not.
-the more familiar you are with someone the more likely you are to mimic them |
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Definition
oxytocin that is released during touching but also during childbirth, breastfeeding and orgasm
-it is involved in monogamous mating and care giving in non humans
EX: trust game
-people gave money more that twice as likely to a stranger after inhaling oxytocin |
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Definition
-The ability to accurately perceive others emotions
-Understand one's emotions
-Use feeling to make decisions
-Manage ones emotions in given situations |
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| Emotion and Status within a group |
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Definition
| Displaying emotions like anger can increase social power |
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| Emotion and social cognition |
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Definition
| Emotions can influence how we process information and make judgements |
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Definition
| A theory that many judgements are too complex for people to thoroughly review all the relevant evidence, so they rely on emotions to provide rapid, reliable info about events and conditions of their social environment |
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Definition
Emotions have more influence on complex judgements than simple ones
-EX: are they trustworthy vs what color are their eyes? |
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| Emotion and Moral Judgement |
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Definition
Many moral judgements are quick, effortless, and based on immediate emotional responses.
"I just know thats wrong" |
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Definition
-Personal moral dilemmas activate regions of brain involved with emotion
-Impersonal moral dilemmas activate parts of the brain associated with working memory and reasoning |
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| The peak moment and the end of the moment |
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| The moment of an event you feel the most pleasure, which is associated with the overall pleasure you feel for an event |
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| The last moment of an event which reflects the overall pleasure you feel for an event |
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Definition
The length of an emotional experience has little effect on the overall evaluation of how pleasurable the experience was
-It doesn't matter if it was really long or really short, the determinants are the peak and the end |
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Definition
Predicting how we will feel during or after a particular event in the future
-EX: predicting how happy we'd be after a romantic breakup |
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| Affective Forecasting Problem |
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Definition
It is often not correct
-people often assume that they will like or dislike a future event more than they actually do when it occurs |
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Definition
Tendency for people to underestimate their ability to be resilient.
-Painful, difficult experiences often are less upsetting than we expect them to be |
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Definition
Tendency to focus on only one aspect of an event when trying to predict future emotions
-Neglects importance of other events in determining our feelings
EX: A happy wedding day doesn't guarantee a satisfying marriage |
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Definition
-More successful marriages
-More creative and productive work
-Longer lives |
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| Age and Gender on Happiness |
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Definition
| Age and Gender are unimportant when it comes to happiness |
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| Money only increases happiness among the poor |
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| People are happier in countries where individual rights and economic opportunities are available |
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| Happiness and Social Relationships |
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Definition
Social relationships are an important source of happiness
-married peopel are happier than unmarried people |
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Definition
-50% genetics
-10% our environment
-40% lifestyle choices |
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| Putting emotions into words |
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Definition
Increases happiness
-Writing about negative emotions provides insight and reduces stress
-writing about positive goals may improve performance |
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| Expressing positive social emotions |
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Definition
Increases happiness
-Expressions of gratitude linked to higher levels of happiness and health
-Expressions of compassion and forgiveness reduce levels of stress |
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Term
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Definition
an evaluation of an object in a positive or negative fashion
-includes the 3 elements:
-affect
-cognition
-behavior |
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Definition
-Affect
-Cognition
-Behavior |
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Definition
Numerical scale to assess peoples attitudes
-it includes a set of possible answers label with anchors on each extreme |
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Definition
| The time it takes an individual to respond to a stimulus such as an attitude question |
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| Implicit Attitude Measures |
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Definition
Indirect measures of attitudes that do not involve self report
-EX: Response latency |
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| Attitudes can conflict with... |
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Definition
Other influences when predicting behavior
-social norms, other conflicting attitudes, and situational factors may also influence behavior |
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| Attitudes can be inconsistent |
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Definition
| Emotional and cognitive aspects may conflict with them |
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Definition
| We focus on what is easy to identify, influences attitudes |
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| Attitudes can be based of secondhand info |
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Definition
-research shows attitudes based on firsthand experience better predict behavior
-attitudes based on secondhand experience may be wear and less likely to motivate behavior |
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| General Attitudes don't match specific targets |
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Definition
Attitudes better predict behavior when a specific one goes to a specific behavior.
-attitudes towards "basketball" may not reflect how they feel about every single player |
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| Predicting Attitudes from Behaviors |
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Definition
Predicting attitudes from behaviors are strong.
-People adjust their attitudes to be consistent with their behaviors |
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| Cognitive Consistency Theories |
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Definition
| -attitudes may be updated or altered in order to fall in line with previous behavior |
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Definition
People try to maintain a balance between their thoughts, feelings, and sentiments
-If my friend likes somebody I will end up liking them too |
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| Cognitive Dissonance Theory |
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Definition
| Theory that inconsistancies between our thoughts and feelings, and our behavior create unpleasant mental state (dissonance) that motivates us to either change how we feel or what we're doing |
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| Tendency of Cognitive Dissonance |
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Definition
| Because behaviors cannot be taken back, cognitive dissonance often causes changes in thoughts/ feelings to rationalize behavior |
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Term
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Definition
When experiencing dissonance with a decision, it is resolved by emphasizing the positives and minimizing the negatives
(and emphasizing the negatives of the unselected choices)
EX: picking a town or a city
-We rationalize before or after our decision is made |
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Definition
| People reduce dissonance by emphasizing on the time, effort they put into something that turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing |
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Definition
Fraternities with more severe hazing have more loyal members
-This is effort justification!
-People who get hazed need a reason to tell themselves it was all worth it |
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| Sweet Lemons Rationalization |
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Definition
| People think to themselves that something is "not so bad after all" to justify costly or unpleasant effort |
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Term
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Definition
AKA Forced Compliance
-subtly getting people to act in ways inconsistent to their attitudes
-leads to a change in attitude to resolve dissonance |
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| Culture and Decision Dissonance |
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Definition
-Independent Western cultures concern one's ability to make adequate choice
-Interdependent Eastern cultures concern one's ability to make choices that would be approved by others |
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| System Justification Theory |
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Definition
People are motivated to see the existing political and social system as fair and legitimate
-people want to think world is fair |
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| System Justification and Dissonance |
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Definition
-When we prove "the system" unfair through the economy or psychological factors, we tell ourselves it is easier to justify than protest
EX: "If i could go to school and get a job, then homeless people could do the same thing |
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Definition
| Knowledge about mortality and dying gives us anxiety, so we then search for symbolic immortality. |
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| Achieving Symbolic Immortality |
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View self as connected to broader culture, worldview, or social institutions
"I may die but American will be here long after I'm gone" |
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| Terror Management and Culture |
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Definition
| Terror management concerns occur in all cultures |
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| Being open about death/mortality |
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| Effects of Mortality Salience |
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Definition
-More commitment to in group and more hostility to out groups
-Increased hostility to people who criticize one's ingroup (country, family, etc) |
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Definition
-Utilitarian
-Ego Defensive
-Value Expressive
-Knowledge |
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| Utilitarian Function of Attitude |
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Definition
-Serves to alert people to rewarding objects and situations they should approach and costly or punishing objects they should avoid
-Tells us what to do and not do based off what will make us happy |
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| Ego Defensive Function of Attitude |
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Definition
Attitudes allow us maintain cherished beliefs about themselves and the world by protecting them from contradictory information
-defend our beliefs when they are threatened |
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| Value Expressive Function of Attitude |
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Definition
| Attitudes help us express cherished beliefs and attitudes |
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Definition
Groups whose opinions matter to us and affect our beliefs.
-We join reference groups to assure our attitudes |
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| Knowledge Function of Attitude |
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Definition
Attitudes help organize people's understanding of the world, guiding how they attend to, store, and retrieve information.
EX: People with pre-existing political attitudes may predict who people think won a debate better than the actual debate |
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Term
| Two Process Models of Persuasion |
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Definition
1. Elaboration likelihood model
2. Heuristic-systematic model (same thing) |
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| Heuristic-Systematic Model |
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Definition
| A model of persuasion that maintains that there are two different routes to persuasion: heuristic (peripheral) and systematic (central) |
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| Elaboration Likelihood Model |
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Definition
persuasion can work by changing what we know and believe OR changing how we feel
(central vs peripheral) |
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| Central Route to Persuasion |
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Definition
| When you change someone's attitude based off giving them facts, related evidence, and principles. |
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| Central Routes are effective when: |
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Definition
-The message is personally relevant to us
-We have knowledge about topic
-We feel responsibility for some related outcome |
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| Peripheral Route to Persuasion |
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Definition
| People use superficial cues related to the message to change people's attitudes. |
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| Peripheral Routes are effective when: |
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Definition
Using feelings and superficial associations
-source characteristics (attractiveness, etc)
-number or length of arguments
-Group consensus |
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| Yale School Approach to Persuasion |
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Definition
Persuasive messages have 3 components:
Who, or source of the message
What, or the content of the message
Whom, or the target of the message |
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Definition
Aspects of who is portraying the message
Good characteristics are:
-attractiveness
-credibility |
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Definition
Aspects of the message itself, including quality of the evidence and explicitness of its conclusions.
Good Characteristics:
-High Quality
-Vivid Imagery |
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| Identifiable Victim Effect |
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Definition
| The tendency to be more influenced by information about one specific individual than by information about large numbers of people |
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Definition
| Can be very effective especially with vivid info, however are most effective with instructions on how to avoid the fearful outcome |
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Definition
| Characteristics of the person who receives the persuasive message, including age, personality, and motivation to attend the message. |
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| Personality on Receiver Characteristics |
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Definition
| The more likely a receiver has a "need for cognition" or likes to think deeply, the more likely the central route will work in persuading them |
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| Mood on Receiver Characteristics |
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Definition
Messages are more persuasive when they match the mood of the receiver
EX: optimistic messages work best on happy people |
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| Age on Receiver Characteristics |
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Definition
The younger you are the more persuadable you are
-Older people have strong and longer held attitudes |
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Definition
| The assumption that more people are vulnerable to messages from the media than we are ourselves |
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| Effect of media on behavior |
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Definition
Surprisingly, the effects of media are weak on persuasion
-However, the effects of media do depend on personal relevance |
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| Effects of Media on Social Reality |
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Definition
| The media may shape which issues are seen as important, relevant, or true |
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| Television consumption and social attitudes |
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Definition
Heavy television watchers endorse more racial stereotypes, overestimate the prevalence of violence and crime, and overestimate the number of professionals in the population
-Assume more of TV is factual |
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