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the I-knew-it-all-along-phenomenon
the tendency to exaggerate how well you could foresee an outcome after it has happened |
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| research on sustainability |
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| study of natural relationships, identifies the strength of the relationship between two variables |
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variables increase together
ex: weight and height |
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as on variable increases, the other decreases
ex: age and number of classes till graduation |
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| the relationship holds true for most of your data |
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| the relationship does not hold true for most data; it isn't as reliable |
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| you CAN determine causation |
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assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment randomly
helps control differences between groups |
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| looks similar to the participant |
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feels similar to participant
ex: Milgrim shock |
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| clues that inform participants about expected behavior |
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| every person in the population has an equal chance |
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| potential survey problems |
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representative sample
order of questions
response options
framing: wording of question |
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| the belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behavior than they really are |
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| the illusion that our conscious emotions leak out and can be easily detected by others |
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| mental template by which we organize our worlds |
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| beliefs about the self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information |
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| images of what we dream of or dread in the future |
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| evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others |
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| others' judgement (looking-glass self) |
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| how we think others perceive us has an impact on how we perceive ourselves |
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| those who wanted to be part of a group and has remorse and low self-esteem when they let the group down were better able to survive |
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| giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining yourself (identity) in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications |
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construing one's identity as an independent self
ex: Americans and Australians |
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| giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly |
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construing one's ideas in relation to others
ex: Asia, Central and South America |
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| explaining our behavior, predicting our behavior |
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| the tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task |
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| overestimating the impact of emotion-causing events |
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| tendency to neglect the speed and strength of the "psychological immune system" |
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| automatic or implicit attitudes regarding someone or something often differ from our consciously controlled, explicit attitudes |
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| our overall self evaluation or sense of self-worth based on our values |
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| bottom-up way of thinking |
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| someone who values education and looks will feel good when they achieve/succeed in that area |
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esteem comes from alternative ways to overcome fear of death
self-protective emotional and cognitive responses when confronted with reminders of mortality |
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| tend to have high self-esteem, criticism can lead to aggression, correlated with materialism, desire to be famous, inflated expectations, fewer committed relationships, gambling, and cheating |
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the sense that you are competent and effective (not that you have high self-esteem)
predicts productivity |
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| exhibiting self-control takes energy and can make us feel physically tired |
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| the extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable or as externally controlled |
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| internal locus of control |
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by their own efforts
ex. bad grade = my fault |
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| external locus of control |
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by chance or outside forces
ex. bad grade = bad study guide |
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| sense of hopelessness when someone perceives no control over repeated bad events |
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| a tendency to perceive oneself favorably |
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| a form of the self-serving bias; the tendency to give credit for success to self and blame failure on others |
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| the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and be one's undesirable/unsuccessful behaviors |
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| the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors |
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| explaining a way of group members' positive behaviors to their dispositions while excusing such behavior by one's own group |
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| the adaptive values of anticipating problems and harnessing one's anxiety to motivate effective action |
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| when is defensive pessimism good? |
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shields against depression
helps alleviate stress
motivates us to do well |
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| when is defensive pessimism bad? |
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"victim mentality" leads to unhappiness
group cooperation is more difficult |
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| the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways to create a favorable impression |
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| why do we use self-presentation? |
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| to impress others, to maintain our self-esteem |
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| protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure |
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| being attuned to presenting oneself in social settings and adjusting one's performance to create a desirable impression |
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| explicit thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious |
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| implicit thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness, roughly corresponds to intuition |
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| when do we use automatic processing? |
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when using mental schemas
when we emotionally react to something
when we have expertise in the area |
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| overconfidence phenomenon |
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| the tendency to be more confident than correct, the overestimate of accuracy of one's belief |
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| when are we overconfident? |
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when basing judgements on very little information
when we have been close to right in the past |
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the tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
when given the opportunity, we don't try to disprove our own ideas |
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| a thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgements |
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| tendency to presume that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling that group |
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| likelihood increase availability in memory increases; if something comes readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace |
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| imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened but didn't |
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| when does counterfactual thinking occur? |
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when it is a near miss
when we can easily envision an alternate scenario to a negative event |
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| tendency to search for order in random events |
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| perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists |
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| perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable as they are |
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| regression towards the average |
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the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return towards one's averages
regression to the mean |
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| a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone |
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| when do we stick to our attitude? |
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social influence
strong opinion/importance
when social influences are minimal
when attitudes specific to behavior are examined
when attitudes are potent |
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| when are attitudes specific to a behavior examined? |
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| when researchers ask questions about specific scenarios |
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| when are our attitudes potent? |
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when we are primed to be thinking about a certain topic
when we are self-aware
when we have relevant experiences |
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| implicit association test (IAT) |
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| a computer driver test which uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words |
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| foot-in-the-door phenomenon |
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| the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a large request |
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| a tactic for getting people to agree to something, people who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante |
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if we do something immoral once, we are more likely to do it again
if we harm someone, our attitudes towards that person can shift -- a negative attitude follows a negative behavior |
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| a set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave |
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| activating particular associations in memory |
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| the mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgements |
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| how does priming influence us? |
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our political perceptions
our perceptions of others
others' perceptions of us |
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| spontaneous trait transference |
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| when we say something good or bad about other, people spontaneously tend to associate that trait with us |
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| differing implicit and explicit attitudes toward the same object |
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| persistence of one's initial conceptions, even when they have been discredited |
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| how does belief perseverance work? |
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| the subject is likely to continue to believe a fact, even after it is discredited, if the subject created rationale for the belief |
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| incorporation "misinformation" into one's memory after witnessing an event then receiving misleading information about it |
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| how people explain others' behavior - by attributing it to internal dispositions or external situations |
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| mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source |
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| dispositional attribution |
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| attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits |
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| attributing behavior to the environment |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influence upon others' behavior
also called correspondence bias |
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| spontaneous trait inference |
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| an effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior |
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| we pay ___ attention to the person than the environment, when others behave negatively |
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| public self-consciousness |
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| attributing more of your own behavior to the situation |
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| private self-consciousness |
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| attributing more of your own behavior to personal characteristics |
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| a belief that leads to its own fulfillment |
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type of self-fulfilling prophesy
people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations |
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| to make a good impression, we behave in ways that are inconsistent with our attitudes |
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| when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them as someone else would -- by looking at our behavior |
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tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions
ex: we act contrary to our attitude with little justification |
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| selective exposure, insufficient justification and overjustification |
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| tendency to seek information and media that agree with one's views and to avoid dissonant information |
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| insufficient justification |
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| reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient" |
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| the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing |
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