Berry's Enculturation Model

Acquisition of qualities necesary to function as a member of one's group

Involves 3 transitions

• Vertical -Parents
• Horizontal -Peers
• Oblique -Social  

Lewis Field Theory

The studty of human behavior through well control case study

Studies individual case, uniqueness and differences

Berry's Bidirrectional Acculturation Model

Marginalization = low involvement in one's own minority culture

Also this model talks about integration , assimilation and separation

McGuire Inoculation Theory

A person is less likely to be persuade with a weak counterargument before the persuade message

Weak counterargument = greater resistance

Impresion formation

How we make judgements  about others

Schemata

• organized, interconnected mental networks of information
• developed based on personal and social experiences
• used to judge later (current) situations
• tend to pay more attention to and have better recall of schema-confirming info and events than schema-disconfiriming data

Prototypes

heuristics: rules of thumb used to facilitate processing representative heuristic: a judgment about a person based on how similar he or she is to a "typical" member of a given group ("Christine looks and acts like a cheerleader- so she must be a cheerleader!)

availability heuristic: the tendency to use information that is most readily retrievable from memory

heuristics can lead to errors due to limited information being considered

base rate fallacy: the tendency to ignore or underutilize information related to the frequency with which a characteristic or event occurs in the population

Exemplars and Abstractions

both important in the impressions we form of others

exemplars: concrete behaviors that we have seen a person perform – most important during early impression formation

mental abstractions: representations derived from repeated observations of people’s behavior

Impression Formation: Biases and Other Influencing Factors

• Central Traits

• Asch (1946) - certain traits influence impression formation more than others
• Warm and cool are central traits which carry more weight because they carry more information and are associated with a large number of other characteristics

Impression Formation: Biases and Other Influencing Factors

an impression is most influenced by information presented first, when they are presented with contradictory information about someone else

recency effect: if an irrelevant activity intervenes between presentation and the person is warned not to make quick judgments, the more recent information has the most weight

Impression Formation: Biases and Other Influencing Factors

• Negativity Bias

• negative traits are weighed more heavily than positive
• more confidence in impressions based on – traits
• - impressions are usually harder to change than +

Impression Formation: Biases and Other Influencing Factors

• Physical Attractiveness

• powerful factor on initial impression formation
• cute kids are more likely to be forgiven and are more likely to be judged more favorable (perceived higher IQ and more likely to have future academic success)

• Stigma

• characteristics that are devalued by a particular group
• cause a person to be recognized for those characteristics
• some mental and physical disabilities
• poverty
• obesity
• impacted by the visibility of the condition and the belief’s about the person’s ability to control the stigma
• Not as bad to have AIDS from a blood transfusion than from a hoppin’ sex life

Impression Formation: Biases and Other Influencing Factors

• False Consensus Bias

overestimate the degree to which others are similar to us

Impression Formation: Biases and Other Influencing Factors

• The Social Concept

• behaviors tend to be perceived in the manner that is consistent with the social context in which they take place
• Rosenhan (1973) – Pseudopatient Study - people got themselves admitted to hospital by claiming auditory hallucinations, then acted normally with patients and staff. 1/3 of the patient’s thought the subjects were sane, but staff diagnosed all but one as schizophrenic

Impression Management

Impression management: how people try to control the judgments that others make about them

Impression Management

• Strategies that people use to create a desired social image/identity

• Ingratiation: includes both self and other enhancement, flattery and agreement
• Intimidation
• Self-promotion
• Exemplification: convincing others you are a good person
• Supplication: convincing others that you are needy and deserving

Impression Management

• Self- Monitoring

• people differ in their need and ability to manage the impression that others form of them
• High self-monitors: refer to their "pubic self" and try to match the public self to the social situation

• Are good at determining what behaviors, attitudes are socially desirable or expected

• Are sensitive to the impression management techniques of others (good BS detectors)

Impression Management

• Self- Monitoring

• Low Self-Monitors: attempt to alter the situation to match their "private self"
• Are guided primarily by their own beliefs and values

Attribution of Cause

Attribution: the process of determining or inferring why a behavior has occurred

Dispositonal vs. Situational: is it the person or the environment

Stable vs: Unstable: long-term or short-term

Specific vs. Global: impact on how many events, conditions or phenomena

Controllable vs. uncontrollable: is it within the actor’s control (effort) or not (luck)

The Fundamental Attribution Bias

observers tend to overestimate the role of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of sitautional factors

Basically people get what they deserve

Belief in a just world: defensive attribution that tends to view victims as the cause of their own misfortune

Focusing on dispositional factors tends to be an individualistic(western) bias due to a person-controlled theory of social behavior

Collectivistic cultures (Chinese, Indian Hindus) tend to make situational attributions due to a situation controlled view of social behavior

Correspondent Inference Theory

Jones & Davis (1965) observers infer an actor’s personal dispositions from the actor’s behavior

• similar labels are assigned to behavior and disposition
• Kind acts are interpreted as inherent kindness
• observer makes inferences about an actor’s bx, they consider
• about the intention of the bx
• the # of "noncommon" effects or consequences of the bx
• the bx’s social desirability
• More likely to infer when bx is believed to be intentional, has limited effects and when the bx is socially undesirable

The Covariation (ANOVA) Principle (Kelly, 1971)

distinguishes between three causes of bx

• dispositional – the actor
• situational – the entity
• situatinal – the circumstance

Observers tend to look for patterns in an actor’ s behavior to determine the cause

• Consider three types of information when making causal attributions about the bx of others

Consensus Information: Do other actors behave in the same way in the same situation?

Distinctiveness Information: Does the actor act the same way in response to different entities?

Consistency Information: Does the actor consistently act this way at other times and in other places?

Bx is likely to be attributed to the actor if there is low consensus, low distinctiveness, and high consistency

Attributions About Success and Failure (Weiner, 1974)

INTERNAL

Self-Attributions

• Actor/Observer Bias

people are more likely to attribute their own bx to situational factors than to dispositional ones

we make different attributions about our own bx than others

The Self-Serving Bias (Miller and Ross, 1975)

Tendency to take credit for one’s success and externalized one’s failures

Depressed people more likely to attribute their failures to stable, internal factors and successes to temporary, external factors

People with high achievement orientation tend to attribute success to stable, internal causes and failures to unstable, external factors (Dweck & Leggett, 1988)

Self Perception Theory (Bem, 1965

people make attributions about their own bx in the same way they make attributions about others bx à rely on their observations about recent or salient external bx and the circumstances in which the bx occur

Perception of Emotion (Schachter and Singer, 1962)

perception of emotion depends on the combination of the physiological arousal and a cognitive label

Overjustification Hypothesis (Lepper, Greene, Nisbitt, 1973)

when an external reward is given to the person for performing an intrinsically rewarding activity, the person’s intrinsic interest in the activity will decrease

à When kids who like to draw get rewarded, they are less interested in drawing.

Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954

in the absence of physical or objective standards, we look to others in order to evaluate or judge our own bx

Usually compare with those who are similar in attitudes, opinions, and performance

Dissimilar (downward) comparisons are made when evaluating an undesirable bx or condition (I’m not as bad as she is.)

Applications of Attribution Theory

tendency to make internal, stable, and global attributions for bad events à hopelessness à depression

But, negative attributions made by depressed folks may be more realistic than those of non-depressed people, especially related to estimates of personal control (Alloy & Abrahamson, 1979) (Arguing yet again that a firm grip on reality is not always a good thing!)

Applications of Attribution Theory

dissatisfied partners are more likely to see negative marital events as a result of global and stable characteristics of their partner and positive events to specific, unstable causes (Bradbury & Fincham, 1990)

Applications of Attribution Theory

internally-oriented interventions that emphasize self-control and personal responsibility do better over the long term than external interventions

(Smokers using nicotine gum were more likely to quit initially than those in a self-regulation group, but the self-regulation maintained abstainance for a longer period of time)

Applications of Attribution Theory

Storms and Nisbitt (1970) à misattribution therapy to be useful treatment in insomnia. If told a placebo would make them more tense and uncomfortable à slept better than those it would make them relaxed

Forsterling (1985) teach kids to attribute their poor school performance to low effort (unstable controllable) than to low ability (stable, uncontrollable) to improve their academic performance

Social Influence and Personal Control

Social Influence: Occurs when a person’s attitudes or behaviors are the result of direct or indirect social pressure

Responses to Social Influence

Conformity

• shift in a way to correspond with those of other people
• can involve public &/or private acceptance of bx, attitudes and beliefs outward bx may or may not reflect his or her inner attitudes and beliefs

Autokinetic effect: Sherif (1935) à perceptual phenomenon where a stationary point of light seems to move in a darkened room

Used this phenomenon to study conformity. When alone, estimates of how much it moved varied. When in groups, people generally confirmed the estimates of others à Convergence Effect

Factors that affect a person’s willingness to conform

Group Unanimity à more likely to conform if the group is unanimous

Group Size up to 3-5 members, as group size go up comformity go up.

Group Cohesiveness greater cohesiveness, greateer conformity to group norms

Anonymity less likely to conform if opinion can be expressed in private

Compliance

a person agrees to behave in a particular way at the request of another

• Methods to increase compliance

Foot-in-the-door à (Freedman & Fraser, 1966) making a small request →most people will comply→ then making a much larger request (People see themselves as cooperative )

Door-in-the-face (Cialdini et al., 1975) Make a large request →most people would refuse→then make a small request. (People see it as a concession feed like it should be reciprocated.) More successful than foot-in-the-door

Low-ball technique offer something at a low price→once they agreed →change the conditionàthe price is higher (People feel obligated because they agreed.)

People who need compliance in their work (salespeople, fund-raisers, bill collectors) use six main strategies to get people to agree *Reciprocity, *consistency, *social validation, *friendship or liking, *authority, and *scacity

Obedience

when a person submits to the request or demand of an authority

Milgram (1963) à shock experiment with learning,

→people would be willing to obey an authority even when such obedience appears to have painful consequences for another person closer to the learner than to the teacher. Less likely à if by telephone

Less likelyà took place in a warehouse than at Yale University

Less likely àassistant refused to obey

Bases of Social Power

• Six based of Social Power (French & Raven, 1959)

Coercive: influencing agent has control over punishments

Reward: influencing agent has control over valued rewards and resources

Expert: influencing agent is believed to have superior ability, skills, or knowledge

Referent: target is attracted to, likes, or identifies with the influencing agent

Legitimate: target believes the influencing agent has legitimate authority

Informational: influencing agent possess specific information that is needed by the target person

Expert: the influencing agent is believed to have superior ability, skills, or knowledge

Referent: the target is attracted to, likes, or identifies with the influencing agent

Combining expert and referent power à incremental power à more powerful than either alone. (Landy, 1989)

Social Influence can have one of three effects (Kelman, 1961)

Compliance change in order to get a reward or avoid punishment. Stems from Reward and Coercive Power, most superficial.

Identification change in order to be liked or identified with another person. Stems from Referent Power.

Internalization change b/c the individual (privately) accepts the beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors of another. Most likely Expert, Legitimate, or Informational Power

Minority appears "deviant, incompetent, unreasonable, unappealing, and unattractive"

• To be successful maintain a consistent position, remain clear, firm and uncompromising (but not rigid or dogmatic)
• position is consistent with current social trends (in the direction of change)
• People often comply with the majority form normative reasons (to be like or to avoid punishment) and comply with the minority for informational reasons (because they have changed their beliefs
• Result of minority influence -->likely to be a real change rather than compliance
• Result of majority influence -->compliance

Personal Control

People believe -->they have personal control over their attitudes and behaviors and events that happen in their lives

Positive Consequences of Personal Control

performance -->better when people believe they can control interference, even if they can’t really (Glass & Singer, 1972)

People with chronic illness with sense of control--> better outcomes (Thompson et al., 1993)

Reactions to a Loss of Control

à respond by acting in a way that is the opposite of what is desired

Psychological Reactance: (Worchel, Arnold, Baker, 1975) censorship -->people more interested in hearing the message -->change their opinions 

Self-Handicapping: effort is withdrawn -->ego protection

Illusions of control-->illusion that their are in control 

Learned helplessness -->belief one’s outcomes are independent of one’s actions (Seligman, 1975)

Individual Differences in the Perception of Control

External locus of control: (Rotter, 1966) bx is controlled by fate, political structure, and external sources

Internal locus of control: bx is controlled by free choice and free will

High internals --> more achievement oriented, self-confiendent, and willing to work hard to achieve goals. Less anxious, suspicious, and dogmatic. Adjust better than high externals

Self-Efficacy: (Bandura, 1989) belief that one can act effectively in a given situation.

Determine how much effort the person is willing to exert and how long they will continue in the face of obstacles.

Attitudes and Attitude Change

Attitudes: stable, evaluative responses to an entity or situations with three components

affective (evaluative) component: reflects liking for the entity or situation

Cognitive component: the person’s beliefs about the entity or situation

Behavioral (conative) component: a person’s behavioral tendencies toward a situation or entity

The Measurements of Attitudes

Self-Report Measures

Likert Scale: On a scale from 1 to 10. . .

Semantic Differential Scale: rate an object in terms of several bipolar items to assess three dimensions

*favorablenes (good-bad)

*power (weak-strong)

*Activity (active-passive)

The Measurements of Attitudes-->Self-Report Measures

Thurstone Scale:  serise of statements that have already been rated on favorableness and require respondents to check those statements with which they agree

Guttman Scale: statements arranged in a hierarchy so that agreement with one statement indicates agreements with statements lower in the hierarchy

The Measurements of Attitudes-->Self-Report Measures

Social Distance Scale: measure attitudes toward different national, racial, and ethnic groups (based on amount of contact). People aren’t always honest in self-report measures so need to use ways to do something

Bogus Pipeline: Jones & Sigall, 1971, telling subjects they have been connected to electrodes that will measure their true opinions even when it has not.

Physiological Measures emotional responses are paired with physical responses (galvanic skin response, electromyogram aned pupil dilation) to assess attitudes.

+ can tell if they are having an emotional reaction

- can’t tell the intensity or direction of the reaction

The Measurements of Attitudes

unstructured and informal to highly structured

Participant observation--> informal (observer actively participates in the activities of the group)

Interaction Process Analysis -->formal. To assess interaction in small groups codes verbalizations in 12 categories to rate social-emotional and task orientation

Attitudes and Information Processing

Selectivity (congeniality) Hypothesis (Festinger, 1957)

prior to adopting a particular position, people are willing to expose themselves to both supportive and conflicting information

once they are committed-->seek out information that confirms their position and avoid contradictory information

Attitude consistent information -->more convincing than attitude-inconsistent information (Pomerantz et al., 1995)

Attitudes -->implicit effect on social judgments

Attitudes and Behavior

Discrepancy between attitudes and behavior-->Attitudes can accurately predict behavior IF:

-->measures of attitudes and behaviors are specific

-->multiple attitudes and bxs are measured

-->attitudes are based on direct experience (Fazio & Zanna, 1978)

-->bx will have important consequences when the person is a low-self monitor (DeBono & Snyder, 1995)

attitude measure assesses -->behavioral intention (attitude toward engaging in the bx), what the person believes other people think they should do and the person’s perceived behavior control.

Theory of Planned Behavior: assesses attitude toward the behavior rather than toward the object

Attitudinal Ambivalence

ambivalence -->temporary state-->preference for cognitive consistency

Psychodynanalytic interpretations Kaplan (1972) argued that ambivalence as potentially stable

Ambivalence Amplification Theory: ambivalence involving strong positive and negative attitudes toward an outgroup

Factors Influencing Attitude Change

-effectiveness of a persuasive communication depend of three factors 1)attention 2) comprehension and 3) acceptance (Hovland, 1953)

- Acceptance: is based on Characteristics of the communication, the communicator, the context, and the recipient

Characteristics of the Communicator

Credibility-->sleeper effect: initially highly credible-->

over time this moves toward the middle

Trustworthiness -->depends on the communicator’s motives & best interests

Similarity -->more effective if the audience sees the communicator as similar in terms of ideology, demographics, and other characteristics b/c increased similarity à increased liking à increased susceptibility to persuasion

Delivery -->people who speak more rapidly are more persuasive, especially when they are seen as more credible more effective if the audience sees the communicator as similar in terms of ideology, demographics, and other characteristics b/c increased similarity increased liking increased susceptibility to persuasion

Characertistics of the Communication

Level of Discrepancy-->best if moderate discrepancy between the communicator and the recipient

One-Sided vs. Two-Sided Communication-->better if  recipients initially favorable to message, are uneducated, and/or are unlikely to hear the other point of view

Two-Sided -->better if recipients are initially opposed to message, are well-educated, and/or are likely to hear the opposing view

Order of Presentation -->primacy effect occurs if second communication is right after the first and the measure of attitude is taken later

recency effect period of time between the communications and the attitude measurement is right after second point of view. equally spaced, doesn’t matter

Framing -->negatively framed messages greater impact than positively framed messages

people are happy-->more likely to be persuaded by a positive message

Fear Arousal-a type of negative framing

-->high fear arousal greatest amount of attitude change

-->lower fear arousal to be more effective

May actually be a U shaped -->greatest amount of attitude change with moderate level of fear (McGuire 1969)

High fear arousal -->best if message includes clear guidelines on how to avoid feared consequence and recipient believed he will be able to take the reccommended action (Rogers, 1975)

Accidental Messages more likely to induce attitude change when they are accidentally heard by a recipient

b/c the communicator is perceived as trustworthy

Mere Exposure  repeated exposure increases the likelihood that it will be accepted, regardless message validity

true -->if presented subliminally (Bornstein & D’Agostino, 1992)

Accidental Messages

more likely to induce attitude change when they are accidentally heard by a recipient b/c the communicator is more likely to be perceived as trustworthy if the message is overheard

Mere Exposure

being exposure repeated increases the likelihood that it will be accepted, regardless of the message is validity

especially true when the message is presented subliminally related that supraliminally (Bornstein & D’Agostino, 1992)

Characteristics on the Context

Forwarning--> decreases the message’s ability to induce attitude change can increase persuasiveness when the recipients wants to be liked by the communicator or wants to "save face" by agreeing with the communicator

Inoculation (McGuire, 1969)

a person is better able to resist a persuasive communication when she has heard arguments against their own position and weak counterarguements

Characteristics of the Recipient

Self-Esteem--> curvilinear relationship, moderate levels of self-esteem are the most influenceable

Intelligence -->relationship with persuasibility is inconsistent Rhodes & Wood, 1992 meta analysis

higher intelligence = less persuasibility

Mood (Worth & Mackie, 1987)

+ mood ↓ processing influced by heuristic cues

-/neutral mood = higher level of processing more influenced by quality of an argument

Gender

females more easily persuaded than males →differences to socialization

Cognitive Processes in Attitude Change

Elaboration likelihood Model: (Petty et al., 1994)

persuasion can occur in one of two ways:

central route →likely -->listener finds the message interesting, important, or personally-->willing to consider the message in a thoughtful, careful way= long lasting attitude change

peripheral routeà listener finds the message uniteresting or uninvolving-->Attitude change requires less mental effort and depends on quantity rather than quality.

Theories of Attitude Change

Cognitive Constancy theories à assumptions that cognitive consistency is a desirable state, people are motivated to reduce unpleasantness by altering one of their cognitions

unbalanced state à discomfort à changes mind to decrease discomfort

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger, 1957)

2 incompatible cognitions experience dissonance we try to decrease dissonance by-->change attitude,  behavior or downplay the importance -->avoid situations that create dissonance

In a Choice Situation à have to choose between two equally desirable alternative à experience discomfort à change evaluation of options à chosen one is more attractive

In a Forced-Compliance Situation people are required to behave in a way counter to their private beliefs change their behavior or attitude to feel better

Theories of Attitude Change

Insufficient justification: don’t experience discomfort when their counter-attitudinal bx are result of strong coercion, strong norms, or an offer of a large reward

(Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959)

Self-Perception Theory: alternative explanation for results à reported more favorable attitudes because nothing in the environment explained their willingness to lie.

 Theories of Attitude Change

Modification to cognitive dissonance theory à Cooper & Fazio, 1984

 à an attitude-behavior discrepancy does not always result in cognitive dissonance à only when the discrepancy has aversive or undesirable consequences

Prejudice and Discrimination

Stereotyping: schemas about entire groups --> oversimplified, rigid, and generalized impressions of members of the groups

-->effects how information is processed

-->pay closer attention to what confirms their stereotype

-->prevents cognitive overload by reducing information

-->traits are predominantly negative

illusory correlation: the tendency to perceive a stronger relationship between two variables than actually exists

Prejudice and Discrimination

F (Fascism) Scale: assesses nine components of authoritarianism (conventionalism, authoritarian aggression, superstition, and stereotyping) corresponding to the functioning of the ego, superego and the id

High F scale =prejudice, intolerance of ambiguity, political and social conservatism, and family traditional ideology

High authoritarianism =weak ego, a rigid and externalized superego, and a strong primitive id

Prejudice and Discrimination

symbolic (modern) racism: prejudice and discrimination are less blatant =resistance to change in racial status based --> moral feeling that African-American/minorities violate traditional American values as individualism, self-reliance, and the work ethic

è symbolic racists deny racism and attribute economic problems of the minority groups to internal (lack of effort and discipline)

Modern sexism: denial discrimination against women and resentment about demands for equality

Contact Hypothesis: stereotypes ↓ contact dif. groups ↑

contact alone dont ↓prejudice (school desegregation)

effective =members of dif. social, economic, or task-related status -->opportunities to disconfirm - stereotypes about opposing group. Contact in a supportive social environment -->coperation is needed to achieve mutual goals

Methods for Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination

Stereotype suppression: suppression is often followed by a strong rebound effect in which stereotypic thinking becomes more pronounced (Macrae et al., 1994)

Antisocial and Prosocial Behaviors

Life space: the biological, psychological, social, and physical influences that define the person’s unique reality at a given point in time

Antisocial and Prosocial Behaviors

Theories of Aggression

Frustration- Aggression Hypothesis: (Dollard et al., 1939) aggression consequence -->frustration produced--> blocked attainment of a goal. Aggression serves to remove the frustration Berkowitz (1971)

frustration =readiness for aggression (anger arousal)

expression of aggression require both anger arousal and presence of appropriate external cues

Theories of Aggression

Social Learning Theory:(Bandura, 1983)

aggressive bx result-->of observational learning (imitation). e.g--> Bobo doll experiment imitate an aggressive model stronger -->when the model is powerful, successful, liked, familiar,& same sex 

strong effect -->model is rewarded for aggressive bx

Social Learning Theory: (Bandura, 1983)

↑ High violence viewing (Gerbner et al., 1980)

à tend to judge aggressive retaliation more positively

à tend to overestimate the likelihood that one will be a victim of violence

à greater support for harsher prison sentences to help reduce crime

Imitative aggression less likely whenis real rather than "clean" –stuff on TV (Goranson, 1970)

↓ when kids view violence with an adult who condemns it (Horton & Santogrossi, 1978)

Social Information Processing: (Crick & Dodge, 1994)ggression is the result of maladaptive processing of social cues support à highly-aggressive children often exhibit a hostile-attribution-->interpreting a person’s intentions as hostile -->aggressive solutions to problems but few assertive ones (Slaby & Guerra, 1988)

six stages

• encoding
• interpretation
• clarification of the goals of the interaction
• identifying alternative responses
• selecting a response
• enacting the chosen response

Family Factors: coercive family interaction model

(Patterson, DeBaryshe, & Ramsey, 1989)

-->children initially learn aggressive bx from their parents who model aggression through their use of harsh discipline and who ignore or reinforce their children’s aggressiveness

aggression

-->eventually generalizes from home to school

Factors that Affect Aggressiveness:

Anonymity: Zimbardo’s deindividuation model of aggression a. people are more likely to act aggressively or antisocial when unidentifiable, disguised or in crowd --> ↓ inhibitory mechanisms -->shame and guilt, fear of evaluation, and feelings of personal responsibility

b. Drugs: aggressiveness ↑ with large alcohol quantities

-->THC larger doses  ↓ aggressiveness

Pornography:

exposure to explicit pornography or violent pornography increases violence

demeaning attitude toward women (Check & Gtuloisn, 1989)

Personality Characteristics

People who are highly aggressive are disagreeable, suspicious, hostile, and emotionally over-reactive and unstable (Caprara et al, 1994)

Bystander Apathy

1964 Kitty Genovese stabbed to death, witnessed by 38 people who didn't call the police

Latane & Darley-->subject least likely to call for help in the presence of others à the greater the number of bystanders, the greater the bystander apathy

Social Influence (Pluarlistic Ignorance)

-->assistance is unnecessary because others are not offering assistance

-->Evaluation Apprehension-->do not help b/c they fear social disapproval

Diffusion of Responsibility: 

-->do not accept personal responsibility for helping because they assume that others will

-->willingness to intervene ↑ emergency is non-ambiguous

-->feels responsibility or feels competent to help

-->when someone else has already intervened

Cooperation

activities structured ↑ intragroup cohesiveness

attending religious services focused on cooperation

Affiliation and Attraction

Affiliation à the desire to be with others, several factors that affect the tendency to affiliate

Anxiety: Schachter, 1959

led to believe that they would receive a painful shock (high anxiety) or a nonpainful shock (low anxiety) 

à more high-anxiety subjects wanted to wait with others than low-anxiety

-->highly anxious preferred to wait with highly anxious -->wait alone or with non-anxious --> chose to wait alone

Gender:

males and females do not differ significantly in their patterns of overall affiliation

females spend more time engaging in conversation

-->opposite sex,

-->female friendships depend on verbal communication and self-disclosure

-->male friendships more out of shared activities (Hays, 1985)

Interpersonal Attraction

Similarity: attraction ↑ similarity in beliefs, attitudes, values, and personality increases.

similarity-->most important for attraction

complementarity -->critical for long-term romantic relationships

Physical Attractiveness:  physically attractive -->more liked = popularity (Dion, 1992)

Competence: competent and intelligence-->more liked

Proximity and Exposure:  people don’t initially dislike each other, attraction is likely to increased 

Interpersonal Attraction

Reciprocity: we like people who like us and don’t like people who dislike us

gain-loss theory-->attraction is maximized when evaluations of us are first negative then change to positive (Aronson & Linder, 1965)

Self-Disclosure: increase liking when it is gradual and with women more than men. Usually reciprocal

Interpersonal Attraction

Reinforcement: we like people who reward us and dislike people who do not.

Social Exchange Theory: people are attracted to one another when the rewards of the relationship exceed its costs

Gender men are more likely to prefer mates who are physically attractive

females prefer mates who are college educated and have good earning potential (Sprecher, Sullivan, Hatfield, 1964)

Consequences of Affiliation and Attraction

Approach:  willingness ↑ as attraction ↑

Communication: (Rosenfield, 1966) – talked more, smiled more and more attentive when -->meeting a person they are attracted to. -->disclose more about themselves

Helping: helping bx ↑ by attraction.

Health: presence of a well-liked person can ↓ physiological arousal and stress (Kissel, 1965) also good for disease resistance and disease prognosis

Sex-Role Behaviors

• Sex Differences

Achievement Orientation:

à Horner, 1972 èwomen "fear of success"

à Stein & Bailey, 1973 èboth achievement-oriented, but differ in the areas they choose to excel

women à have lower expectations about their careers (Jackson, Gardner & Sullivan, 1992)

à females tend to attribute their academic failures to a lack of ability and view themselves as incompetent even went hey get good grades (Licht & Dweck, 1984)

Sex-Role Behaviors

• Sex Differences

Conformity:

stereotype-->women are more likely to conform

females and males -->less conforming when a task is familiar -->more conforming when a task is unfamiliar

Aggression: males are more physically aggressive (physical)

girls --> use indirect (ignoring, lying or withdrawal)

mela-->use instrumental to gain control of others

Females -->use expressive terms (emotionally)

Sex-Role Stereotypes

Healthy adults and healthy males-->independent, active &

competitive

Healthy females-->submissive, dependent & passive

Females --> described in more negative terms (Deauz, 1993)

Men -->viewed as more competent by both sexes

Psychological Androgyny

(Bem, 1993) androgynous people-->better adjusted than sex-typed people; flexible because they can display either masculine bx (linear thinking, rationality) or feminine bx (empathy, tenderness) or a combo

-->higher levels of achievement, self-esteem, interpersonal satisfaction Spence (1982)

-->BEM sex-role Inventory measures expressiveness and instrumentality rather than femininity and masculinity

Ecological Psychology

• Crowding and Personal Space

à people prefer high density crowds at football games, rock concerts and other situations like that.

à laugh more in high density environments

-->unpleasant situations even more unpleasant (Deaux & Wrightsman, 1988)

-->high residential density -->more physical and mental health problems, poor academic performance, juvenile delinquency and higher mortality rate

Impacted by individual’s need for personal space

à violations = anxiety, irritability, increased aggression, and reducing helping behavior

à Americans require more space than Latin Americans, Arabs, Greeks and French

à greater personal space -->low self-esteem, high 

authoritarianism and violent people

à men require more than women è men sensitive/stressed by high density -->react aggressively

A profesor has been teaching a psychology class using the same material for over 10-years.

This represent a violation of the principal of competence

When transmitting client information via electronic transfer

Client personal identifiers need to be coded

The goal of the Ethic Code is

To protect people with whom psychologist work

To protect clients

When working in a military setting. A supervisor refers an employee to a psychologist then request information about the employee

The psychologist should not release information unless he gets a realease of information from the client  

When providing therapy to youth age 13+ when parents request information from the psychologist  

The psychologist do not share information with parents and tells parents that to preserve the effectiveness of treatment he/she prefers not to share the information

Psychologist consider minor's preferences  

Even though the parents are legally entitle 

A psychologist has a child in therapy. The court request the psychologist feedback for custody matters 

The psychologist need to decline and not testify due to already having a relationship with the client

A psychologist had a prior relationship with a client years ago. The client request psychological services to the psychologist

It is not acceptable for the psychologist to work with this client due to having a prior relationship with the client

A client files a complaint with APA against a psychologist. If APA request client file  

The psychologist supply APA the client records

A psychologist had sex with a client and tells you. You should 

You should further discuss with the psychologist to explore what curse of action he/she plans to take

The underline principal of the APA Ethical Guidelines  is that psychologist?

Protects human rights

APA Code of Ethics

Standards and the most important information to remember about these

Standard 1.04 Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations:

When psychologists believe that another psychologist has committed an ethical violation, they should attempt to resolve the issue informally by bringing it to the attention of that person if they believe that doing so is appropriate. Note that confidentiality always takes precedence, however - an informal resolution must "not violate any confidentiality rights that may be involved."

Standard 1.05 Reporting Ethical Violations:

If an ethical violation has harmed or is likely to harm a person or organization and is not appropriate for informal resolution, or is not resolved properly in that fashion, the psychologist takes "further action" (which may involve referral to an ethics committee or the state licensing board). Again, confidentiality always takes precedence.

Standard 2.01 Boundaries of Competence:

Psychologists should provide services within the "boundaries of their competence." However, psychologists often want to provide services in new areas or use new techniques. In these situations, they undertake "relevant education, training, supervised experience, consultation, or study." It's up to the psychologist to determine which action is most appropriate for the situation.

Standard 3.02 Sexual Harassment:

The Ethics Code prohibits sexual harassment, which it defines as sexual solicitation, advances, and so on that (1) are unwelcome, offensive, or create a hostile workplace or educational environment or (2) are sufficiently severe or intense to be considered abusive by a reasonable person. Note that psychologists are warned not to make hiring, promotion, or other decisions about someone simply because he/she has made or is the subject of a sexual harassment charge.

Standard 3.05 Multiple Relationships:

In most situations, psychologists avoid multiple (dual) relationships. This prohibition is not absolute, however; and a multiple relationship may be acceptable when a psychologist determines that it "would not reasonably be expected to cause impairment or risk exploitation or harm."

When psychologists are required to serve in more than one role in judicial or administrative proceedings, they clarify role expectations and the extent of confidentiality at the beginning of services and thereafter as changes occur.

Standard 4.02 Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality:

Unless it is not feasible or it is contraindicated, psychologists discuss the potential limits of confidentiality "at the outset of the relationship and thereafter as new circumstances may warrant."

Standard 4.05 Disclosures:

Psychologists disclose confidential information only (1) with the consent of the patient or client (or his/her legal representative) or (2) when they are required or mandated by law to do so. A psychologist is legally (and ethically) required to violate confidentiality, for instance, in cases of suspected or known child abuse or when the client represents a serious threat of physical danger to another person.

Standard 5.05 Testimonials:

Psychologists do not solicit testimonials from current therapy clients or patients or from others who are vulnerable to undue influence.

Standard 6.03 Withholding Records for Nonpayment:

The Ethics Code prohibits psychologists from withholding client records when they are needed for "emergency treatment" for a client simply because payment has not been received.

Standard 6.04 Fees and Financial Arrangements:

Psychologists clarify fees with patients and clients "as early as is feasible."
It is acceptable to use a collection agency to collect outstanding fees as long as the person is informed ahead of time and given an opportunity to make acceptable arrangements for payment.

Standard 6.05 Barter (With Patients or Clients):

Standard 6.06 Accuracy in Reports to Payors and Funding Sources:

Psychologists must be accurate in their reports to insurance companies, funding agencies and other payors about fees, the nature of their services, and so on. For instance, concerns about insurance coverage should not influence what diagnosis is listed on a client's insurance form.

Standard 6.07 Referrals and Fees:

Referral fees are acceptable under certain circumstances - that is, if they are based on the services (clinical, consultative, administrative, or other) provided and not on the referral itself. In other words, if you charge a colleague for client referrals, the fee must reflect what it actually cost you to make the referrals.

Standard 7.07 Sexual Relationships with Students and Supervisees:

Psychologists do not engage in sexual relations with students or supervisees in their department, agency, or training center, or over whom they have evaluative authority. This means that, in some cases, it may be acceptable to become involved with a student or supervisee - for example, when the person is a student in another department or is a former supervisee.

Standard 8.07 Deception in Research:

Psychologists do not conduct a study involving deception unless its use is justified by the study's significant scientific, educational, or applied value, and when equally effective alternative procedures that do not require deception are unavailable. When subjects are deceived about some aspect of a study, they must be debriefed "as early as is feasible."

Standard 8.09 Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research:

When using animal subjects in research, procedures that cause pain or stress can be used only when their use is justified by the prospective value of the research and alternative procedures are unavailable. When an animal's life must be terminated, it must be done quickly and in a way that minimizes pain.

Standard 8.12 Publication Credit:

Publication credits accurately reflect the relative scientific or professional contributions (not the status) of the people involved.

Standard 9.04 Release of Test Data:

When patients or clients provide a release, psychologists must release test data (including raw test results) to them or their designees. However, this request may be denied if it is necessary to protect them from "substantial harm or misuse or misrepresentation of the data or the test."

Standard 10.01 Informed Consent to Therapy:

Standard 10.05 Sexual Intimacies with Current Clients or Patients:

Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with current clients or patients. This is an absolute prohibition - no exceptions.

Standard 10.08 Sexual Intimacies with Former Therapy Clients or Patients:

Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with a former therapy client or patient for at least two years after cessation of therapy. The two-year exception applies only when there is no exploitation and the psychologist has considered all relevant factors (e.g., the amount of time that has passed since therapy was terminated, the client's past history, the likelihood of adverse consequences for the client or others).

Standard 10.10 Terminating Therapy:

Psychologists should terminate therapy when it becomes clear that the client no longer needs the service, is not benefiting, or is being harmed. However, to ensure that termination does not constitute abandonment of a client, psychologists must take appropriate action, which may involve providing pre-termination counseling and/or making referrals.

The Guidelines for Child Custody Evaluation in Divorce Proceedings

The Guidelines for Child Custody Evaluation in Divorce Proceedings states that psychologists ordinarily avoid multiple relationships. For example, they should not accept an evaluative role in a custody case where they have already established a therapeutic relationship with the child and/or the child's parents.

The Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists

The Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists states that a forensic psychologist must not use the results of an evaluation for any other purpose than that originally discussed with the client unless a waiver is obtained from the client or his/her legal representative. The Guidelines also state that, unless stipulated by the parties, forensic psychologists do not reveal statements made by a defendant during the course of an evaluation of his/her mental condition that are not relevant to that evaluation.

Surveys about clinicians stress  

Surveys have found that clinicians report that, overall, the greatest source of stress in their work is a "lack of therapeutic success," while "suicidal statements" are the most stressful client behavior.

Surveys about psychologist ethical behavior

Another survey of psychologists found that those who reported having sexual relationships with clients were also more likely to report having been involved in nonsexual dual relationships with clients. In addition, offenders rated nonsexual dual relationships less negatively than non offenders did. However, contrary to what might be expected, offenders were no more likely than non offenders to report having had a sexual relationship with a therapist, supervisor, or instructor during their training.

Fact witness

A fact witness is like any other citizen and provides information on facts (e.g., what he/she did or observed). If asked to give an opinion during a deposition or court proceeding, a fact witness should decline unless ordered to do so by the court. An expert witness is a person who, because of his/her education or experience, is qualified to offer an objective opinion.

Buckley Amendment (also known as FERPA, or the Family Education Rights and Privacy Act)

Applies to school records in school districts receiving federal funds. It establishes the right of parents to inspect the school records of their children and the right of students who have reached the age of majority to inspect their own school records. It also prohibits disclosure of school records to unauthorized people without parental consent.

Methods of Cost Analysis 

Cost benefit analysis (CBA) involves determining the costs and benefits of a particular intervention in monetary terms and then comparing the total costs with the total benefits. This method of cost analysis is often used to compare different intervention options for a particular disorder.

Cost effectiveness analysis (CEA) is used to determine the costs and mental health outcomes of two or more interventions in order to identify the intervention that is most effective (i.e., that produces the greatest benefits for the least cost). CEA is useful when it is not possible to assign a monetary value to an intervention’s outcomes.

Cost minimization analysis (CMA) is used to determine the least costly option among several options that produces equivalent outcomes. CMA might be used, for example, to determine if paraprofessionals can provide services that are comparable to those provided by professionals at a lower cost.

Cost utility analysis (CUA) involves attributing a monetary value to various quality-of-life or other relevant client outcome measures in order to evaluate the impact of one or more interventions.