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1912-1950
study only observable behavior |
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"Little Albert"
learned emotional response, associated learning
GENERALIZATION (white beard ~ rabbit) |
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CR: Salivation
UR: Salivation
CS: Bell
US: Food |
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Operant conditioning
Reward + punishment |
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| reward + punishment defines behavior |
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nature + nurture = 1
f(e)+f(p)+f(p*e)-(ERROR)=1 |
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Affect = ....
Behavior = ....
Cognition = ..... |
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Affect = emotion
Behavior = actions
Cognitions = thoughts |
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| The founder of American Psychology |
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| William James (1842-1910) |
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thoughts and beliefs about ourselves
AKA "the known" or "me"
the active processor of information |
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known aspect of self, our knowledge about who we are
knowledge about who we are |
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| Emery & Clayton, 2005; Reiss & Marino, 2001 |
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-Placed a mirror in an animal's cage until the mirror became a familiar object.
-Red spot drawn on ear
-Chimps, dolphins + orangutans touched area marked with spot
SHOWS SELF-CONCEPT |
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| The act of thinking about ourselves |
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| Mental structures that people use to organize their knowledge about themselves and that influence what they notice, think about, and remember about themselves |
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| The tendency for people to remember information better if they relate it to themselves |
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| The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values |
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| The tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons |
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| Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done |
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| Performance-Contingent Rewards |
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| Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task |
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| Two-Factor Theory of Emotion |
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| The idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it |
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| Misattribution of Arousal |
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| The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do |
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| The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people |
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| Downward Social Comparison |
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| Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we on a particular trait or ability |
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| Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are on a particular trait or ability |
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| The process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes |
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| The process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status |
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| The strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves |
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| The tendency to focus on and present positive information about oneself and to minimize negative information |
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| examined whether animals have a sense of self by looking at their reactions when placed in front of a mirror. He found that the great apes seem to have a sense of self—they recognize that their image has changed when anesthetized and a red dye is placed on part of their face. Dolphins showed a similar response. A similar test used with human infants suggested that self-recognition develops at about two years of age. |
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1. Organizational Function of the Self
• We use self-schemas, mental structures that help us to organize our knowledge about ourselves, to organize our knowledge about ourselves
2. Self-Regulation: The Executive Function
•The self also serves an executive function, regulating people’s behavior, choices, and plans for the future. According to the self-regulatory resource model, self-control is a limited resource and people have a limited amount of energy to devote to self-control, and that spending it on one task limits the amount that can be spent on another task. |
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| Cultural differences in defining the self... |
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western = independent
other = interdependent |
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| Gender differences in defining the self |
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| Research suggests that women have more RELATIONAL interdependence, focusing more on their close relationships, while men have more COLLECTIVE interdependence, focusing on their memberships in larger groups. |
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| Nisbett and Wilson (1977) |
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conducted a study in which participants viewed a film. For half of the participants, a “construction worker” buzzed a powersaw outside the room during the viewing. Although the participants (and the researchers!) thought the noise would influence evaluations of the film, it didn’t do so, demonstrating a faulty causal theory.
• In another Nisbett and Wilson study, participants asked to rate pantyhose at a shopping mall were influenced by the position of the items on the display table; however, participants did not believe that this could affect their responses |
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| We are especially likely to infer our feelings from our behavior when... |
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1. our initial feelings are weak or unclear
2 we think about why we have behaved the way we have and decide that it was our free choice |
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| Schachter and Singer (1962) - Adrenaline, placebos + angry confederates = emotions? |
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| people’s emotions are somewhat arbitrary, depending on the most plausible explanation for arousal. Thus in their experiment, the researchers were able to prevent people from becoming angry by proving a nonemotional explanation for why they felt aroused, and they could make Ss feel a very different emotion by changing the most plausible explanation for arousal. |
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| Sinclair, Lowery, Hardin & Colangelo (2005 |
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| we tend to automatically adopt the views of people we like and automatically reject the views of people we do not. |
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| A drive or feeling of discomfort, originally defined as being caused by holding two or more inconsistent cognitions and subsequently defined as being caused by performing an action that is discrepant from one’s customary, typically positive self-conception |
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| The idea that people will reduce the impact of a dissonance-arousing threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence on some dimension unrelated to the threat |
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| The tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of our emotional reactions to future negative events |
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| Dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives |
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| salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price |
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| The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain |
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I DO THIS BECAUSE I HAVE TO
A reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., in order to receive a large reward or avoid a severe punishment) |
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I DO THIS BECAUSE I PERSONALLY THINK IT IS RIGHT
The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one’s attitude or behavior) |
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| Counterattitudinal Advocacy |
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| Stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one’s private belief or attitude |
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| The dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals’ devaluing the forbidden activity or object |
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| A long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification |
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| three basic ways we try to reduce cognitive dissonance... |
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By changing our behavior to bring it in line with the dissonant cognition.
By attempting to justify our behavior through changing one of the dissonant cognitions.
•By attempting to justify our behavior by adding new cognitions. |
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Leon Festinger and J. Merrill Carlsmith (1959) induced college student volunteers to spend an hour performing boring and repetitive tasks.
Half of them were offered $20 (large external justification) to tell the next volunteer it was very interesting while the others were offered only $1 (small external justification) for lying. |
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Afterward, the students who had been paid $20 for lying—for saying that the tasks had been enjoyable—rated the activities as the dull and boring experiences they were.
But those who were paid only $1 for saying the task was enjoyable rated the task as significantly more enjoyable.
With insufficient external justification, they developed internal justification and came to believe their lie. |
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| students make a video for AIDS prevention for hs students. if have unprotected sex = Hippocracy condition |
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| Students in the hypocrisy condition were subsequently more likely to buy condoms than students in any of the other conditions. |
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If threatended mildly, then behavior (increases or decreases)
If threatened severely, then.... |
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Severely: increases
mildly: lower |
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| ________originated the concept of cognitive dissonance |
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| Jones and Kohler (1959) - segregation/desegregation views in southerners |
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| remembered only points that backed up their arguments and the points that made the other argument look bad |
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| physiological response to disonance in the brain... |
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| reasoning areas of the brain virtually shut down when a person is confronted with dissonant information, and the emotion circuits of the brain light up when consonance is restored. |
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| Knox and Inkster (1968) - horse betting, asking people if they thought their horse would win |
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thought that their horse would win, more strongly after bet was already placed
The more permanent (less irrevocable) a decision, the greater the need to reduce dissonance after making it. |
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Mills (1958) made it easy for sixth graders to cheat on a competitive exam with prizes to the winners, and surreptitiously observed who cheated.
Results... |
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| Children who cheated showed a more lenient attitude toward cheating, and those who resisted the temptation, a harsher attitude, than their pre-test scores. |
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| We like people for the favors that we have done them |
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| Evaluations of people, objects, and ideas |
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| Cognitively Based Attitude |
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| An attitude based primarily on people’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object |
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| Affectively Based Attitude |
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| An attitude based more on people’s feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object |
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| The phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus |
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| The phenomenon whereby behaviors that people freely choose to perform increase or decrease in frequency, depending on whether they are followed by positive reinforcement or punishment |
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| Behaviorally Based Attitude |
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| An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object |
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| Explicit Attitudes vs Implicit Attitudes |
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Explicit: Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
Implicit: Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious |
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| Communication (e.g., a speech or television ad) advocating a particular side of an issue |
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| Yale Attitude Change Approach |
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| The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on “who said what to whom”—the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience |
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| Central vs Peripheral persuasion |
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Central: when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication
Peripheral: when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics (e.g., who gave the speech) |
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| Central Route to Persuasion |
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| ) The case whereby people elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, as occurs when people have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication |
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| Peripheral Route to Persuasion |
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| • The case whereby people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues |
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| Heuristic–Systematic Model of Persuasion |
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| An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts (heuristics), such as “Experts are always right” |
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| ) Making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position |
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| The idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior |
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| The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person’s evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object |
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| Theory of Planned Behavior |
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| The idea that the best predictors of a person’s planned, deliberate behaviors are the person’s attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control |
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| Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people’s judgments, attitudes, and behaviors |
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| The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype |
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| 3 components of attitudes |
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1. Cognitively based attitude - based primarily on a person’s beliefs about the properties of the attitude object; their function is “object appraisal,” meaning that we classify objects according to the rewards or punishments they provide
2. Affectively Based Attitudes - are based more on people’s feelings and values than on their beliefs. Their function may be value-expressive. Thus, attitudes towards political candidates are generally more affectively than cognitively based.
3. Behaviorally Based Attitudes - based on self-perception of one’s own behavior when the initial attitude is weak or ambiguous. |
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| How can we change our attitudes by changing our behavior? |
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1. Cognitive Disonance - changing the attitude to correspond with the behavior provides an internal justification.
2. Counter-attitudinal Advocacy - people usually attempt to change the attitudes of the masses through persuasive communication. |
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| Davidson and Jaccard (1979) - birth control use + attitudes |
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| showed that married women’s use of birth control pills was much better predicted by their attitude towards using the pills during the next two years than it was by their attitudes towards the pills or towards birth control |
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| Wilson & Brekke - how people view advertising effects |
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| Wilson and Brekke (1994) found that most people think advertising works on everybody but themselves. |
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