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Social Psych Test Four
Sweet action
81
Psychology
Undergraduate 2
05/05/2009

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Term
Natural selection
Definition
Survival of the fittest.

The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that are best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations.
Term
Evolutionary psychology
Definition
The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection.
Term
Cross-cultural psychology
Definition
Psychology that considers the cultural context, rather than by the evolutionary (same built-in software) or traditional (we are all blank slates)
Term
Evolutionary v. Traditional v. Cross-cultural
Definition
EP: Emphasis on human kinship and species typical universals. We all have the SAME built-in software.

Trad: We are all blank slates--all-purpose learners w/ little "pre-installed software."

Cross-cultural: Emphasis on human diversity; variations across the world and how it impacts us.
Term
Gender differences
Definition
1) Independence v. Connectedness

2) Social Dominance

3) Aggression

4) Sexuality
Term
Social roles
Definition
The idea that certain groups have roles in society.

For example, traditionally, men are providers and women are nurturers.
Term
Buss' studies of mating preferences
Definition
Study of 37 cultures:

-Women <3 older men w/ resources, status, and maturity
-Men <3 younger women w/ looks and health
Term
Parental investment theory
Definition
Idea that women have a greater investment into offspring than males, since they have invested more into the child (aka--pushing a baby out)
Term
Inherited mental mechanisms v. general learner perspectives
Definition
Inherited mental mechanisms suggests an evolutionary perspective. We have the same pre-installed software.

v.

General learner perspectives suggests the traditional psychology point of view which suggests that we learn things as we go along.
Term
Peace
Definition
Low levels of hostility and aggression and mutually beneficial relationships.
Term
Gender role
Definition
A set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females.
Term
Gender
Definition
In psychology, the characteristics whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male or female.
Term
Social trap
Definition
A situation in which conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self interests, become caugt in mutually destructive behavior.

Ex: Prisoner's Dilemma or Tragedy of the Commons
Term
Integrative agreements
Definition
Win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefit.
Term
Superordinate goal
Definition
A shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another.

EX: Independence Day--aliens unite all.
Term
Culture
Definition
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
Term
Norms
Definition
Standards for accepted and expected behaviors.

They prescribe "proper" and "normal" behavior.
Term
Personal space
Definition
The personal bubble we all love and enjoy. Its size depends on our familiarity w/ whomever is near us.
Term
Empathy
Definition
Putting oneself in another's shoes.
Term
Aggression
Definition
A physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm.
Term
Androgynous
Definition
Andro (man) + gyn (woman)

Mixing masculine and feminine characteristics.
Term
Interaction
Definition
A relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as bio) depends on another factor (such as environment).
Term
Sexual selection
Definition
The process by which gender differences evolve due to w/in sex competition.
Term
Altruism
Definition
A motive to increase another's welfare w/o conscious regard for one's self-interests.
Term
Social exchange theory
Definition
An egoistic theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs.
Term
Egoism
Definition
A motive (supposedly underlying all behavior) to increase one's own welfare.

The opposite of altruism.
Term
Batson's model of "genuine" altruism
Definition
The key to true altruism is empathy.

When viewing another's distress, it is important to remove egoistic motivation by inducing empathy.
Term
Reciprocity norm
Definition
Expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
Term
Social-responsibility norm
Definition
Expectation that people will help those who need it.
Term
Bystander effect
Definition
A person is less likely to help when there are bystanders present.
Term
Kin selection
Definition
Idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually-shared genes.
Term
Reciprocal altruism
Definition
Helping evolved through reciprocal altruism processes and extends to non-kin.

EX: We help those affected by tsunami disaster; we expect them to help us when in need.
Term
Latane and Darley's 3-stage model of helping
Definition
Potential helpers must:

1) Notice
2) Interpret as an emergency
3) Assume responsibility
Term
Failure to notice (Latane and Darley)
Definition
Perhaps b/c of time pressure (Samaritan experiment) distractedness.
Term
Failure to interpret (Latane and Darley)
Definition
B/c others seem unconcerned (informational influence) or one doesn't want to stand out (normative influence)
Term
Failure to assume responsibility (Latane and Darley)
Definition
B/c of social loafing, fear of being hurt, lack of empathy, or compassion fatigue.
Term
Effects of positive and negative moods
Definition
:-) equates into more likely to help

;-(

-low self-esteem/guilt = more help
-angry/depressed/grief = less help
Term
Ways to increase helping behavior
Definition
1) Create empathy

2) Guilt trip

3) Door-in-the-face technique

4) Model altruism

5) Educate on social psych. findings
Term
Normative influence v. Informational influence
Definition
NI: Conformity to fit other's expectations, often to gain acceptance.

II: Conformity when people accept evidence provided by others.
Term
Normative v. information influence's explanations of non-helping
Definition
Norm: Not help due to peer pressure to not help. Could stem from loafing or desire to not stand out.

II: Do not help b/c one has been convinced that it is not appropriate to help and now believes it to be true.
Term
Personality traits that influence helping
Definition
1) Empathy
2) Self-monitoring (if norms say to help)
3) Religiosity
Term
Cheater-detection mechanism
Definition
Who can I/we trust?

Who will try to take advantage of me/us?
Term
Social capital
Definition
The mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network.
Term
Door-in-the-face technique
Definition
A strategy for gaining a concession.

Turn down large request, then offer more reasonable request :)
Term
Moral exclusion
Definition
The perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary w/in which one applies moral values and rules of fairness.
Term
Over justification effect
Definition
The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing.

They may see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.
Term
Conflict
Definition
A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals.
Term
Zero v. non-zero sum games
Definition
0: One is a winner, one is a loser. No middle ground.

Non-0: Outcomes need not sum to zero. W/ cooperation, both can win. W/ competition, both can lose.
Term
Prisoner's Dilemma
Definition
Suggests the best outcome for all occurs when all unite together.

The best for us occurs when we put ourselves first.
Term
Give-some and Take-some games
Definition
Give: Don't give enough to a common resource.

Take: Take too much from a common resource.
Term
Tragedy of the Commons
Definition
The "commons" is any shared resource (EX: air, water, energy sources)

The tragedy occurs when individuals/groups consume more than their fair share. . . coughcough America coughcough. . . w/ the cost dispersed among all
Term
What kicks off the "defection cycle"?
Definition
Fear and/or greed.
Term
How to induce cooperation instead of competition?
Definition
Not by threats or the capacity to make threats.
Term
Axelrod's tit-for-tat findings
Definition
1) Be nice at first

2) Punish, if necessary

3) Forgive when opponent repents
Term
Social value orientations
Definition
Types people as being either cooperators, individualists, or competitors.
Term
Cooperators
Definition
A social value orientation.

Goal--Maximize joint outcome
Non-zero sum assumption.
Term
Individualists
Definition
A social value orientation.

Goal--Maximize joint outcome
BUT ZERO sum assumption
Term
Competitors
Definition
A social value orientation.

Goal--Maximize difference between self and other

Zero sum assumption
Term
Mirror-image misperceptions
Definition
Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict

Each may view itself as moral and peace loving and the other as evil and aggressive.

EX: Israel and Palestine; both view each other as brutal enemies, while acting as defenders of their countries.
Term
Sherif's study of boys at camp
Definition
A study designed to test group influences.

Particularly interesting was the result of the final experiment. The boys were broken into two groups and evolved to a competitive point where it became an us v. them mentality. The boys often overestimated their own group's abilities, while underestimating their adversaries.
Term
Jigsaw technique
Definition
A learning strategy utilized to ease conflict.

In groups, each student is assigned a particular piece of information. From their these students meet w/ other students from other groups who also have the same info assigned. Thus, the students become experts on their part of the information. The students then return to their "jigsaw" group where they each present their piece of the puzzle. The idea is to ease conflict b/c every student has to listen to the presentation of the others.
Term
Bargaining
Definition
Seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties.
Term
Mediation
Definition
An attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions.
Term
Arbitration
Definition
Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement.
Term
Bargaining

v. Mediation

v. Arbitration
Definition
B: Agreement between two parties

M: Agreement between two parties, w/ help from a neutral third party

A: Neutral third party determines a solution
Term
GRIT
Definition
"Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction"

A strategy designed to deescalate international tensions.
Term
Problems w/ eyewitness testimony
Definition
1) Mis-encoding due to stress or wrong attention of focus or outgroup homogeneity (they all look the same!)

2) misretrieval due to leading questions

3) inability to judge witness' accuracy or lying

4) line up biases and/or issues
Term
Problems w/ accused facing the jury
Definition
1) Beauty = good

2) Similarity - the more like me, the less likely I am to convict or punish harshly
Term
Problems w/ sequestered jury
Definition
1) Groupthink- reach bad decision

2) Normative influence- Conform to fulfill other's expectation (while secretly disagreeing) in order to fit in
Term
Misinformation effect
Definition
Incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event after receiving misleading information about it.
Term
Reactance
Definition
A motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom.

It arises when someone threatens our freedom of action.

EX: Judge may state to disregard a statement, but the jury may react against it to maintain freedom of action.
Term
Is the American economy and lifestyle sustainable?
Definition
Not sustainable--it would take 6 planet Earths to sustain it.

Moreover, the US has become more materialistic and controls more of the world's wealth.
Term
Is "the pursuit of happiness" the problem?
Definition
In a word-yes. In the quest to be happy, we tend to focus on financial success, which has become increasingly difficult to achieve.
Term
Happiness definitions
Definition
1) Leading a virtuous life

2) Life-satisfaction

3) Mood balance
Term
Leading a virtuous life.
Definition
Happiness definition.

:) = adhering to society's vision of morality.
Term
Life-satisfaction
Definition
Happiness definition.

:) = having a positive cognitive evaluation of one's life as a whole.
Term
Mood balance
Definition
Happiness definition.

:) = having many positive moods and few negative moods.
Term
Researchers' definition of happiness
Definition
The combination of high positive mood, high life-satisfaction, and low negative mood.
Term
Happiness and money
Definition
Between countries: People who live in wealthier countries tend to be happier.
EX: Don't have to worry about where the next meal is coming from.

W/in a country: Money has a weak association w/ happiness. Plus, countries that get richer tend not to get happier.
Term
Adaptation-level phenomenon
Definition
The tendency to adapt to a given level of stimulation and thus to notice and react to changes from that level.
Term
Social comparison
Definition
Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others.
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