Term
| 1. What is the propinquity effect? Describe a study that demonstrated the effect. |
|
Definition
We tend to become attracted to people with whom see and interact with regularly.
It is the single best predictor of whether two random people will get together or not.
Festinger et al. (1950)
Examined friendship patterns in a married student housing complex at MIT
There were 17 2-story-buildings, 10 apartments per building
Couples were randomly assigned to buildings and apartments
Measured variable: who did they become friends with?
65% lived in the same building
41% were next-door neighbors
22% lived 2 doors down
10% lived three doors down
Those on first floor living near the stairs had more upstairs friends! |
|
|
Term
| 2. What is the mere exposure effect and what conditions are required for increased liking? Describe a study that demonstrated the effect. |
|
Definition
Repeated exposure to some stimulus leads to increased liking
Only works if you initially like or feel neutral about something
If you don’t like the thing, repeated exposure will make you like it less
Works best the less you are aware of being exposed to something multiple times (e.g., someone you always pass on the way to class)
Moreland & Beach (1992)
Had female confederates go into a class 0, 5, 10, or 15 times throughout a semester
IV: number of times she went to class
At the end of the semester, students rated how attractive she was in an unrelated task |
|
|
Term
| 3. What are three of the five things we discussed in class that increase physical attractiveness in a non-obvious way? (NOTE: you need to discuss more than just universally attractive features.) |
|
Definition
| Symmetry, Being Average, Halo Effect, Impact of environment |
|
|
Term
| What are the three things that can increase the success of first encounters? |
|
Definition
Similarity, Reciprocity-we like people who like us, Playing Hard-to-Get-Utilizing the compliance technique of scarcity (making yourself seem scarce)
Caution, this only works if the person has generally positive feelings towards you |
|
|
Term
| 5. Why do we like people who are similar to us? How does this preference for similarity manifest in terms of physical appearance? |
|
Definition
We think that similar others will also like us
They provide us with social validation for our characteristics and beliefs
We make negative inferences about someone who disagrees with us on important issues
The Matching Hypothesis-People also tend to date others of similar attractiveness – this is called the matching hypothesis |
|
|
Term
| 6. What are the four steps of the social exchange theory of satisfaction and commitment? What variables might make us more or less likely to stay committed to our relationships? |
|
Definition
1 Calculate Costs and Benefits
2 Compare difference in costs and benefits to a relevant comparison level (usually past relationships)
Do you think you deserve better?
Did you just get out of a bad relationship, and anyone seems better?
3 Factor in perceptions of viable alternatives
Is this your only option for a relationship?
Do you feel like you have good and likely alternatives out there?
4 Factor in Level of Investment
E.g., time, money, children, emotional resources, pain and trouble, etc. |
|
|
Term
| 7. What are the two main types of relationships? Describe a study that demonstrates the effect of having a communal or exchange expectation on behavior. |
|
Definition
Exchange Relationships-Governed by equity (equal contributions)
We expect quick and equal reciprocity
We keep track of contributions
We feel exploited when we are not repaid
Helping the other person doesn’t affect our mood
E.g., acquaintances, casual friends
Communal Relationships-The focus is responding to the others needs over time
Strict reciprocity is not desired
We don’t keep track of contributions
Contributions can be more unequal
Helping the other person makes us feel happy
E.g., close friends, partners, family
Clark (1984)
Led male subjects to believe they would be playing a game with a female who:
Was married and visiting the college for a short time only (exchange expectation)
Was new to town, unattached, and looking for friends (communal expectation
Ps complete a number circling task
Told they would be paid based on how many numbers they found
The female (a confederate) always went first and always circled the same amount of numbers with a red pen
The DV was whether the male Ps used a red or black pen when it was his turn
Men who used the red pen were indicating that they would split the money equally
This is a communal behavior
Men who used the black pen were indicating that they wanted split the money according to each person’s performance
This is an exchange behavior |
|
|
Term
| 8. Why do we have exchange relationships and how are connectors related. Describe the study that offered support for the idea of connectors. What is the explanation for why connectors are so effective at creating exchange relationships? |
|
Definition
Social Capital Perspective
Exchange relationships are like social capital. When you are in need of something, you can call on these relationships for help.
For example
56% of people in a survey said they got their job through a personal contact
17% said they saw the contact often
83% said they saw the contact occasionally or rarely
We tend to have “too much” in common with our communal others
Communal relationship partners can’t bring us as many new experiences or as much new information as exchange others
Connectors
There is a basic phenomenon that any two people can be connected by a relatively small number of other people
Some people, those who collect exchange relationships, are more highly connected to other people, and also tend to bring others together
Milgram Study (1967)
Collected the names of 160 people from Omaha, Nebraska, and mailed each of them a packet
Inside was a note with an address of a stockbroker in Sharon, Massachusetts
The note asked people to send it to someone they knew personally who lived closer to the location
Most of letters reached the address in about 6 steps
Over half of the letters that were actually delivered came from just three people living near or in Sharon
Not all degrees in the 6 degrees of separation are equal
There are a relatively few number of people who connect us with the rest of the world
People who have an abundance of exchange relationships
On a societal level, “connectors” serve the same function they do in groups of friends
Bringing important people into our lives
Providing opportunities
Offering new information and experiences
They organize their different friends into a large group of friends
They set people up on dates
They are the “masters of small talk”
They are always mentioning some other acquaintance who is relevant to the conversation in some way
Emotional contagion – the innate ability to transmit emotions
Connectors seem to be high in emotional contagion
Others pick up on this and are drawn to these people |
|
|
Term
| 1. What is aggression? What does the definition rule out? What are the two types of aggression and what’s an example of each? |
|
Definition
Behavior intended to injure another person who does not want to be injured
Rules out emotions and thoughts
Rules out accidents
Rules out things like “Jackass”
Instrumental aggression - behavior intended to harm another person in order to obtain something of value
Hostile aggression - behavior intended solely to harm another person |
|
|
Term
| 2. Identify and describe two theories that argue aggression is innate? |
|
Definition
Instinct Theory
Freud said that if people have a will to live, they must logically harbor a will to die
The will to die builds up over time and needs to be released; it gets displaced on to others
Lorenz said aggression is an innate, instinctual motivation
Aggression secures individuals an advantage in the struggle to survive (e.g., “Kill or be killed”)
Evolutionary Explanation
Being aggressive, especially for males, means a higher place in the dominance hierarchy
Higher in hierarchy = more offspring
Aggression is passed along to offspring and the species becomes more aggressive in the long run
This general drive gets misapplied to non-dominance situations
Biological Mechanisms
Amygdales – area in the brain associated with aggressive behaviors
Activation can lead to violence
Stimulation makes docile organisms violent
In monkeys, activation will only lead to aggression toward a non-dominant monkey
Testosterone
Male sex hormone; positively correlated with aggression
Dabbs et al., 1996 – research on fraternities
Frats with higher testosterone were more rambunctious and crude
Frats with lower testosterone were more well-behaved
They did better academically and were more socially responsible
But, evidence is correlational |
|
|
Term
| 3. Identify and describe two theories that argue aggression is a learned response? Specifically, be prepared to describe research that has found differences in aggression due to the region of the country. |
|
Definition
Socialization of aggression and Gender
Males and females are rewarded and punished differently for aggression
Social roles suggest aggression will be more socially acceptable for males than females
Males and females tend to be aggressive in different ways
Socialization of aggression and culture
Socialization of aggression varies across cultures, even within the same nation
Culture of Honor: Emphasis is placed on honor and status and aggression is used to protect honor
Even minor conflicts can threaten honor and and can trigger aggressive responses
IV # 1: Ps were Northern and Southern males
IV # 2: whether or not the P is insulted by a confederate
Results – Southern (vs. Northern) males:
Feel angrier
Produce more testosterone and cortisol (a stress hormone)
Will be more behaviorally aggressive (in a game of “chicken”)
Social Learning Theory
We learn behavior by watching others and observing the consequences
When leads to positive outcomes for ourselves or others, we will become more aggressive
This even works with observation of aggressive models (Bobo-Doll study)
By watching aggressive models, people:
Learn specific aggressive behaviors
Learn about the rewards and punishments associated with aggression
Develop more positive attitudes and beliefs about aggression in general
Construct aggressive “scripts”
Nonaggressive models decrease aggressive behavior |
|
|
Term
| 4. What are the effects of media violence, according to both correlational and experimental data? |
|
Definition
Long-Term Effects of Media Violence
Is viewing violence at an early age associated with more aggressive behavior at a later age?
22-year longitudinal study
Exposure to TV violence among 8-year-old boys was related to their aggression at age 30
Controlled for SES, IQ, and parenting
The effect was not found among females
Video Games and Aggression (Bushman & Anderson, 2002)
IV: Ps played violent (e.g., Mortal combat) or nonviolent (e.g., 3D Pinball) video games
DV: Ps completed an ambiguous story stem where a character could become aggressive
Results – Ps who played violent video games had the character doing, thinking, and feeling more aggressive things |
|
|
Term
| 5. Identify and describe the frustration aggression hypothesis and the effect of negative affect on aggression. Describe a study that demonstrates each. And, how can thoughts, specifically when people are drinking alcohol, affect aggression? |
|
Definition
When a desirable goal is frustrated, this causes aggression
Put kids in front of a room of attractive toys
IV: How long the kids waited to play
½ played right away, ½ had to wait a long time
DV: how did the kids play?
Those who waited ran in and played very aggressively with the toys, destroying some
Had confederates cut into lines
People near the front of lines became more upset when cut in front of than people later in the lines
Showed that aggression is greater when frustration is greater
Frustration is a function of how close to the goal you are
Had volunteers make calls for charity donations
They were led to expect very high or low success rates
Success rates were actually very low
Those who expected success were more upset than those who did not
So, unexpected frustration leads to increased aggression
Negative Affect
Argues that anything that causes negative affect leads to aggression
Frustration is just one thing that causes negative affect
E.g., pain, offensive odors, loud noises, air pollution, heat
IV: Manipulated temperature of a room while Ps were taking a test
DV: self-report of aggression and rating of their hostility towards a stranger
Results: Individuals reported feeling more aggressive and acted more aggressive when in a hot room
Cognitions actually determine the kind and amount of aggression that occurs
Alcohol, like high arousal, can impair the cognitive control of aggression
Alcohol consumption often increases aggressive behavior
How does alcohol increase aggression?
Alcohol reduces anxiety, which lowers inhibitions against aggression
Intoxication causes alcohol myopia, a disruption in the way we process information.
Narrows the focus of attention to only the most salient aspects of the situation |
|
|
Term
| 6. What are the four types of ways we can try to deal with aggression? What is venting? Make a case that venting is helpful or harmful and use an experiment to support your findings. |
|
Definition
1.Attack aggression Pre-Stimuli
You can avoid aggressive stimuli
Avoid aggressive media
Don’t associate with aggressive people
Avoid aggression-prone situation
2. Attack aggression Post-Stimuli
Cognitive restructuring
See things in a humorous way
Take time to remember that aggression is almost never the best response
Keep in mind:
not everything is a personal attack against you
it’s not your job to bring justice to the world
sometimes people make mistakes
3.Attacking aggression after you already feel aggressive
Exercise (engaging in non-aggressive activity)
Make and seek apologies
Take a “time-out”
Express aggressive feelings in a non-aggressive way
4.Venting
Many psychologists subscribe to Freud’s idea that aggressive impulses build pressure
They often prescribe “letting off steam”
E.g. yelling, punching a pillow, cursing
Measured aggression in football players both before and after the football season
Based on the idea that football players have ample opportunity to vent aggression
Found higher aggressive responses after the season was over
Ps were angered by being given shocks
IV: ½ got the opportunity to shock someone else and ½ did not
Then all Ps were given an opportunity to give shocks; DV: intensity of shocks
Results: Those who had already given shocks gave more intense shocks
Studies have shown that venting does make people “feel” better
But, venting
Leads to more aggression in the long run
Can destroy social relationships, when focused on people |
|
|
Term
| 7. Describe the Fischer et al. (2010) study in detail. Based on their research findings, what recommendations would you make to a parent whose children regularly play video games? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 1. What is are prosocial behavior and altruism? What is the critical difference between the two? |
|
Definition
Prosocial behavior - an act performed with the goal of benefiting another person
Altruism - an act that benefits another person but does not benefit the helper in any way
This act may even pose a risk to the helper |
|
|
Term
| 2. How might kin selection, reciprocity, and cooperative groups be related to helping behavior? |
|
Definition
Kin Selection-Individuals who helped close relatives would have passed on more total genes
Referred to as “inclusive fitness”
Evolution probably provided a general helping drive and most individuals lived in familial groups
When people stopped living in family groups, the drive to help others still existed
Reciprocity Norm-A general helping drive would have quickly evolved into a “help people who are likely to help you back” drive
Blind cooperation would have been a losing strategy for early humans
Requiring reciprocal helping helps address potential problems with “free riders”
Cooperative Groups-There is abundant evidence of ingroup bias
In earlier times, your group was probably composed of family members
Today, the general drive to help groups you belong to still exists |
|
|
Term
| 3. What is social exchange theory and what are some of the benefits that these theorists argue people get from helping? |
|
Definition
Assumes that people will be motivated to help only when the benefits outweigh the costs
Social Exchange theorists do not believe in pure altruism
It is very difficult to establish a situation in which the helper receives absolutely no benefits
Common benefits of helping include:
Increased chance of being helped in the future
Increased social approval
Increased self-esteem or mood
Relief from distress |
|
|
Term
| 4. What is the empathy-altruism hypothesis? Describe a study that demonstrated the effects of this hypothesis. |
|
Definition
Pure altruism does exist, but only in situations in which we feel empathy
Empathy is a state in which you take on the feelings of others
This hypothesis has been tested by manipulating the costs of helping and empathy
You and Elaine (a confederate) show up for a learning experiment
The learner (Elaine) receives a number of painful shocks as the observer (you) watches
The experimenter asks you if you would mind switching places with her
When empathy is high, altruism motivates helping behaviors
When empathy is low, cost/benefit analyses decide helping behaviors |
|
|
Term
| 5. Explain how personality and role models are related to helping behavior. |
|
Definition
People who are helpful in one situation tend to be helpful in other situations
Twin studies have suggested that there is some genetic component of helping
Children played video games and won tokens
They were given the opportunity to give them away to a needy child named Bobby
Those who had seen a teacher donate tokens were more likely to donate their own
This effect was seen 2 months later in an unrelated helping study |
|
|
Term
| 6. How does mood affect helping behavior? Describe a study that demonstrates the effect of positive moods on helping. And, describe general research findings that describe the influence of negative mood. |
|
Definition
People in a mall made a phone call
They found a dime in the coin return or not
Then a confederate walks by and drops some papers
Finding the dime caused people to be happy, led to greatly increased helping behavior
WHY?
Events interpreted in a more sympathetic way
To maintain our own good feeling
Reciprocity – the universe did me a favor
When we feel bad, we do good too
Good deeds are believed to “cancel out” our bad deeds or things we feel guilty about
Helping is a way to improve our bad mood
Helping does not need to be related to the cause of our bad mood |
|
|
Term
| 7. Are people more likely to get help in rural or urban settings? Why? |
|
Definition
People in rural settings are more helpful
Two proposed explanations
People in rural areas have internalized the importance of helping
Urban overload – people become overwhelmed with stimulation from the environment in urban settings
Evidence favors the urban overload hypothesis |
|
|
Term
| 8. What are the five stages of Darley & Latane’s model of helping behavior? Be prepared to give an experiment to illustrate each of the first three stages of the model. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 9. What are three suggestions you would make based on Darley & Latane’s model to increase the likelihood of someone getting help that they need. |
|
Definition
|
|
