Term
| What is compliance? How is it different from conformity? |
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Definition
Changes in behavior that are elicited by direct requests.
This is different from conformity, in which changes in behavior happen through implicit social influence. |
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Term
| What are fixed action patterns? What study demonstrates that they exist for social interactions? |
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Definition
Sequences of behavior that are “set off” by distinct events in the environment.
Once they are set off, they run to completion.
Langer ExperimentHad confederates walk up to people making copies on a copy machine
They were instructed to say one of three things:
Excuse me. I have five pages. May I use the Xerox Machine?
Excuse me. I have five pages. May I use the Xerox Machine because I’m in a rush?
Excuse me. I have five pages. May I use the Xerox Machine because I have to make some copies?
The word “because” set off a fixed action pattern – people complied with the request mindlessly.
They were automatically following a “be helpful” norm, all they needed was a reason – any reason. |
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Term
| What is the contrast principal? What is one compliance technique that demonstrates this principal? |
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Definition
Allows our perception to be manipulated without the appearance of manipulation
If two items are different, we will overestimate the difference, depending on which we perceive first
Lifting something light then something heavy will → perception that the item is heavier
E.g., buying a car, then special features |
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Term
| What is the reciprocity norm? What three compliance techniques does it give rise to? Describe a study that demonstrates one of the techniques. |
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Definition
Norm: If someone does you a favor, reciprocate
If I scratch your back, you better scratch mine
Pre-Giving-When a person gives you something, no strings attached, then subsequently makes a request (donation, favor, vote, etc.)
Disabled Vets Study-In simple mail appeals for donations, the Disabled Veterans Association gets an 18% response rate.
When they send “free” address labels, they get a 35% response rate
Door-in-the-Face Technique-Solicitor first asks for a large request
When the person refuses, a smaller request (the intended request) is made
Based on the idea of reciprocal concession
Blood Donor Study-When people asked for a one-time blood donation, 32% complied.
When first asked to be lifetime donors, then asked for a one time donation, 50% complied.
That’s not all!!!Solicitor makes an unreasonable offer, then makes a better one before you have a chance to refuse the first one.
For example, “in addition to this one pound bucket of Oxy-Clean, you will also get a bottle of Orange Glow and the super shammy, a $30 value, yours for no additional charge!”
Researchers were selling various desserts on campus walkway
Cupcake and 2 cookies sold for $0.75
IV: the researcher either said they would add two extra cookies for no extra charge, or said nothing
DV: How many students bought the goodies? |
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Term
| What is the social validation norm? What three examples of how it is used in advertising. What has research demonstrated about who is most effective as social proof? |
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Definition
Norm: If you are unsure of how to act, do what everyone else is doing
This is why TV shows have laugh tracks
They cause audiences to laugh longer and more often and cause programs to be rated as funnier
Related to the idea of informational influence; we assume others know something we don’t
Everyday, people just like you are…
Millions have tried the _____
I’m just an everyday guy, and I use …..
Any ad that has actor’s playing “regular people”
This is the fastest-growing or best-selling
Researchers dropped wallets all over Manhattan which contained:
$2.00 cash
a check for $26.00
a note which said “I just found your wallet, I’m happy to return it. It feels good to help.”
The note was either written in standard English, or in broken English by a self-proclaimed recently arrived foreigner
Social proof is more powerful when the model is similar to you |
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Term
| What is the consistency norm? When is consistency not effective? What four compliance techniques does it give rise to? |
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Definition
Norm: People should be true to their attitudes and prior behaviors, and not contradict themselves.
If you remember from the self lecture, this is a primary motivator for the self.
Consistency isn’t effective when groups are not aware of or focused on individual consistency
Consistency is not as powerful a norm in collectivist cultures (Cialdini et al., 1999)
Children younger than 6-7 years old are typically not swayed by consistency
The Four-Walls Technique-You surround people with their own attitudes or past behaviors.
To sell Encyclopedias
Are your children important to you?
Is your children’s education important to you?
Would you do whatever you could to aid in your child’s education?
Shouldn’t you buy these encyclopedias?
Foot-in-the-Door Technique-You get the person to agree with an initial trivial request, then ask for a bigger one
People will feel pressure to be consistent with past behaviors
Opposite of door-in-the-face
Bait-and-Switch Technique-Offer a great deal, then switch it with the same deal on a related, but worse, product
This makes the overall deal less good
Works because people initially decided they wanted this product
To be consistent, they should still want a similar product
Low-Ball Technique-Similar to bait and switch, except you give a worse offer on the same product
E.g., the same car, but $3,000 more
People agree to buy something, then when given a steeper price, the drive for consistency compels them to pay it |
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Term
| Describe a study that demonstrates the foot-in-the-door effect. |
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Definition
IV: Ps were approached to put a small “Be a Safe Driver” decal in their window (almost all said yes) or not
3 weeks later, Ps are asked to put a 10 foot high sign in their yard that says “Drive Safely”
DV: how many people say yes |
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Term
| What is the difference between the bait-and-switch technique and low-balling? |
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Definition
Bait-and-switch involves a different (worse) product at the same price
Low-balling involves the same product at a different price |
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Term
| What is the liking norm? What four cues that can increase liking? How does this norm relate to advertising? |
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Definition
Norm: If you like someone, you should help them out.
One important principle is attractiveness
Compliments
Friendships or friendliness
Tupperware Parties
Avon/Mary Kay
Similarity
Just like with social proof
Similar other validate our own beliefs, behaviors, etc.
Ad Examples: sports stars, supermodels, attractive people in general |
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Term
| What is the authority norm? How does this norm relate to advertising? |
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Definition
Norm: Do what authority figures say.
Ad examples:
9 out of 10 dentists agree
Using athletes to sell sport-specific products |
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Term
| What is the scarcity norm? How does this norm relate to advertising? How does reactance theory explain the effectiveness of scarcity? |
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Definition
Norm: Scarce things are more valuable.
Scarcity has been called the principle which drives all economic behavior
Limited time offer
Act now, while supplies last
Limit 2 per customer
One day sales
Before time runs out
Beanie babies (and Cabbage Patch Dolls) limiting the number of products
Reactance Theory (Brehm) – when we feel pressured, or that our freedoms are being threatened, we act to reestablish these freedoms
We react by doing what we have been told that we can not do
Studies have shown that people find the opposite sex more attractive near closing time in bars
Studies suggest that it’s the feeling that, time is running out that causes this effect |
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Term
| What is cognitive dissonance? What are the four tenets of dissonance theory? |
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Definition
Four tenets of dissonance theory
Cognitions are relevant or irrelevant
If relevant, they can be consonant or dissonant
Dissonance → negative arousal
We are motivated to reduce arousal |
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Term
| What are four methods of reducing/avoiding cognitive dissonance? Be able to give an example of cognitive dissonance and how someone might use each one. |
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Definition
Add consonant cognitions or subtract dissonant cognitions (rationalize)
Reduce importance of the conflict
Reduce perceived choice
*Change one thought*
Cognition 1 – Eating worms is disgusting.
Cognition 2 – I am about to eat a worm.
These thoughts are both relevant to one another and dissonant to one another.
This causes negative arousal.
Subjects were motivated to reduce this arousal
They changed Cognition 1 |
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Term
| Describe a study that demonstrates the four dissonance paradigms (free choice, belief disconfirmation, effort justification, and insufficient justification). Be sure to describe results in terms of the two cognitions and four tenets of the theory. |
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Definition
Free Choice Paradigm-People make a difficult choice
The positive aspects of the non-chosen alternative → dissonance
We then revise these judgments to make these positives less positive
Called “spreading alternatives”
Female Ps were asked to rate household items and then choose one to take home
IV: Easy decision (blender vs. spoon) or Hard decision (blender vs. iron)
After choice, they rated the objects again
DV: change in ratings
Result: more spreading alternatives in the hard decision condition
Belief-Disconfirmation Paradigm-Person has a strong belief disconfirmed
Cog 1 – I believed in this cult.
Cog 2 – It was wrong.
Relevant and dissonant = negative arousal.
Solution
rationalization (our faith prevented the world from being destroyed)
add consonant cognitions (each new person who believes in the cult social proof)
Effort-Justification Paradigm-Person engages in an undesirable behavior to gain a desirable outcome
Outcome seems even more desirable because of the undesirable behavior
Cog 1 – I didn’t want to talk about my sex life
Cog 2 – I did to get into the group
Relevant and dissonant = negative arousal.
Reduced by adding the cognition, “It was worth it to be in such a great group”
Insufficient Justification-People are induced to lie and are given very little justification for doing this
They reduce dissonance by changing attitudes
Cog 1 – I told someone they would enjoy doing something I know they will hate
Cog 2 – I did it for only $1.00
Relevant and dissonant = negative arousal.
Reduce dissonance by seeing the task as enjoyable |
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Term
| What is the phenomenon of spreading alternatives? Which paradigm demonstrates this? |
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Definition
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Term
| How are the effort justification and the insufficient justification paradigms different? |
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Definition
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Term
| How can self-perception theory be used to explain attitude change in the classic dissonance studies? How is this different than cognitive dissonance theory? Under what conditions is each theory “right”? |
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Definition
The key is the magnitude of the discrepancy
Big discrepancy between cognitions 1 and 2 → cognitive dissonance
I am a nice person and I just kicked a puppy
Small discrepancy between cognitions 1 and 2 → self-perception
I am a nice person and I didn’t volunteer to help someone move |
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Term
| What is self-affirmation? Describe research that demonstrates self-affirmation. |
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Definition
Dissonance results from behaviors that threaten our sense of integrity
As a result, dissonance can be reduced by letting people affirm their integrity in some other area
E.g., I may have just stolen something, but I’m a good friend
Self-affirmation does eliminate expected ways of reducing dissonance
Ps wrote two dissonant essays
½ affirmed an important, self-relevant value and ½ wrote about an irrelevant value
Ps who self-affirmed did not show dissonance reduction after the essay |
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Term
| How do self-consistency and self-affirmation offer alternative explanations to cognitive dissonance? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the difference between stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination? |
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Definition
Affective Component – Prejudice
hostile or negative feelings toward a group of people
based solely on membership in a group
Behavioral Component – Discrimination
unwarranted hostile behavior toward a member of a group which is based on their group membership
Cognitive Component – Stereotypes
a generalization in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group |
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Term
| What is categorization and what does it have to do with stereotype formation? |
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Definition
The tendency to group similar things together - allows schema formation
A basic ability that all intelligent forms of life have
Involves looking past individual differences, and focus on similarities
We innately classify people into groups
We focus on how members of these groups are similar and ignore individual differences
These perceived similarities are stereotypes |
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Term
| What is the out-group homogeneity effect and what does it have to do with stereotype formation? What are two reasons for the out-group homogeneity effect? |
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Definition
Tendency to perceive more variability among in-groups than out-groups
We ignore individual differences except for our own group
Why does it happen
More opportunities to learn about in-groups
Easier to think of in-group individuals |
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Term
| How do stereotypes affect interpretation of behaviors and memory processes? |
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Definition
Ambiguous behaviors are interpreted in stereotype consistent ways
The Rock Star/Nun was unhappy with the amount of alcohol at the party
The world then looks overpopulated with people acting stereotypically
Memory-Encoding
Ambiguous behavior is seen as stereotypical
Stereotypical information is easier to encode because of schemas
Retrieval – stereotypic information is remembered together
Organization– Information about individuals can be stored along with a stereotype (“He’s a typical _____”) |
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Term
| How are attributions for behavior for in- and out-group members different? |
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Definition
Linguistic Intergroup Bias – Describing stereotypical out-group behaviors with abstract language rather than concrete
He hit that man. (concrete – situational behavioral description)
He is violent. (abstract – dispositional attribution) |
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Term
| What are the three processes that maintain stereotypes when they should be disconfirmed? What experiment demonstrated that stereotypes can create self-fulfilling prophecies? |
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Definition
Attributions
SubtypingTendency to view stereotype-inconsistent individuals as “exceptions to the rule”
Particularly likely with radical deviation from the stereotype
Prevents your stereotype schema from needing revision
Stereotypes provide expectations which can contribute to SFPs
Word, Zanna, & Cooper (1974)
Had Ps act as interviewers for Black and White job candidates
Behavior was coded for seating distance, length of interview, and speech errors (which indicate anxiety) |
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Term
| What is the difference between stereotype activation and application? |
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Definition
Stereotype activation – accessibility of stereotypes
Can be caused by obvious cues, group labels, the presence of a group member, etc.
Stereotype application – usage of stereotypes in influencing judgment or behavior
Stereotypes can be activated without being applied
Cognitive Load – a state of mental overload; reduces the ability to think |
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Term
| 8. How do the three studies from Devine (1989) support the Dissociation Model? Be prepared to describe at least one study in detail. |
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Definition
Gave White Ps a scale to determine their level of prejudice
Asked Ps to identify stereotypes of Blacks
Found that Ps who are both high and low in prejudice have the same knowledge about stereotypes
IV: Ps primed with Black stereotypes or neutral words
Ps then read an ambiguous paragraph about “Donald” and rated him (DV)
Ps high and low in prejudice rated Donald more negatively after stereotype priming
Demonstrated automatic application
Ps were then given an anonymous thought listing task about Blacks
Low prejudiced Ps wrote non-prejudiced thought
High prejudiced Ps wrote prejudiced thoughts
model-We all have stereotypes, but only some people are prejudiced (endorse stereotypes)
Our stereotypes can be automatically applied to targets
If motivated and able we can control our prejudice |
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Term
| 9. Describe one of the Gilbert & Hixon (1991) studies. What do they find regarding stereotype activation and application under cognitive load? |
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Definition
Examined differences between activation and application
Devine’s study activated the stereotypes for Ps (by priming)
Gilbert & Hixson ask whether people automatically activate stereotypes on their own in the presence of category members
Ps put under cognitive load or not.
Then Ps do a word completion task where the person turning cards is Asian or White
Complete words like “s_ort” and “ri_e”
Showed decreased activation of stereotypes under cognitive load
Same stereotypic word completion task with presence or absence of cognitive load
After word completion task, Ps were put under cognitive load or not
Then given an opportunity to rate card-turner
Ps rated her more stereotypically when under load
Ps show increased application of activated stereotypes under cognitive load |
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Term
| 10. Does conscious stereotype suppression work? Describe the Macrae et al. (1994) study that demonstrates this finding. |
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Definition
Showed subjects a picture of “Ian”, a Nazi skinhead
Asked Ps to write about a day in the life of Ian
Half were given no additional instructions, half were to suppress stereotypic content
Control Ps wrote very stereotypical stories, suppress Ps did not
After writing the story, all Ps were told they would meet Ian
Were told Ian was in the bathroom, and to take a seat to wait
DV: How far did Ps sit away from a chair with Ian’s coat on it?
This seems to demonstrate stereotype rebound following suppression |
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Term
| Who is more likely to stereotype, people high or low in self-esteem? How can our motivation affect how likely we are to use stereotypes? |
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Definition
Examined the idea that people who feel bad about themselves are more likely to stereotype others
Ps self-esteem was manipulated using false-feedback (High and low groups)
Found that low self-esteem Ps were more likely to activate their stereotypes, even under load!
When given a chance to apply their stereotypes, low self-esteem Ps felt better about themselves
Examined the possibility that people strategically stereotype (or not) in certain situations
Participants were evaluated by a black doctor either positively or negatively
Doctor stereotypes mainly positive
Black stereotypes mainly negative
After getting positive feedback:
activated the Doctor stereotype
inhibited the Black stereotype
After getting negative feedback:
activated the Black stereotype
inhibited the Doctor stereotype |
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Term
| What did Bodenhausen (1990) find about stereotyping at different times of the day? Be prepared to describe one of his studies in detail. |
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Definition
People are more likely to use stereotypes, which are heuristics, when not motivated or able to think carefully
Cognitive ability and motivation vary as a function of time of day for “morning people” and “night people”
Ps read about student misconduct that involved:
Cheating (part of the stereotype of athletes)
Physically attacking another student (part of the stereotype of Hispanic students)
Selling drugs (part of the stereotype of Black students)
IV: whether or not stereotypes were activated
The first case was either IDed as a “well known athletic star” or campus or not
The second case involved either Robert Garner or Roberto Garcia
The third case involved either Mark Washington or Marcus Washington
Ps were presented with some information about the case that was inconclusive about guilt
DV: ratings of guilt
Independent Variables
IV 1: time of day (9 AM, 3 PM, 8 PM)
IV 2: personality type (morning, evening)
IV 3: stereotype activation (present, absent)
Dependent Variable: ratings of guilt |
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Term
| What is stereotype threat? What are the areas in which stereotype threat has been demonstrated? Describe one study that demonstrates stereotype threat. What is one way that we can try to reduce the effect of stereotype threat, according to research? |
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Definition
When an individual is threatened by being stereotyped and, as a consequence, acts in accordance with their stereotype.
Gave black and white college students items from the SAT test
Some subjects were told the test measured general intelligence, some subjects were told it did not
When black students thought the test measured intelligence, they became nervous that they would perform more poorly and confirm a stereotype
This led to overall poorer performance on the test
remind good student, reminded that abilities are improvable and not fixed |
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