• An abstract concept that refers to the ways in which quetions are asked and the logic and methods used to gain answers.
• Two important aspects:

1. reliance on an empirical approach
2. the skeptical attitude adopted by scientists

• a general aproach to gaining knowledging, not a particular tool

• Emphasizes diret observation and experimentation as a way of answering questions
• considered the most important charactertistic of the scientific method
• psychologist focus on behaviors and experiences that can be observed directly

Ethnocentrism

• occurs when we attempt to understand the behavior of individuals in a different culture through the framework or views of our own culture
• a potential problem in research
• an attempt to understand the behavior of individuals in different cultures based solely on experiences in one's own culture

• a tentative explanation for a phenomenon
• a prediction with an explanation
• often stated in the form of a prediction for some outcome, along with an explantion for the prediction
• If/Then statements
• example: participants WHO DO/DID independent variable ARE/IS predicated to have a/an effect on dependent variable BECAUSE of this.

• searching for an answer using vairous research methodologies and measures of behavior
• leads to a more complete understanding
• most questions are best served not by using only one method, but using multiple methods
• No single metohd can answer all the quesitons that we can - all have + and -

• the essential ingredient of science, distinguishing it from nonscientific procedures

• scientists manipulate one or more factors and observe the effects of this manipulation on behavior

• the factors that the researcher controls or manipulates in order to determine their effect on behavior
• variable manipulated by experimenter
• Minimum of two levels (treatment/experimental and the control group)

• the measures of bheavior that are used to assess the effect (if any) of the independent variable
• measure of behavior used to assess the effect of the IV
• DEPENDS on the IV

• a concept or idea; examples include: intelligence, depression, aggression, memor
• Operational definitions are needed – allows for clear communication
• Advantages: Define constructs & allow for clear communication
• Disadvantages: There are a limitless number. Only good for a very specific context for a very specific group of individuals. And they become meaningless when taken out of the context in which they were developed

• explains a concept solely in terms of the observable procedures used to produce and measure it
• Clear Definitions: is intelligence defined as a score on an exam or how fast a difficult puzzle is solved
• Specific: has to be clear enough that other scientists can understand the definition and in turn replicate the experiment.

• accuracy: the difference between what an instrument says is true and what is known to be true
• calibrating: accuracy is determined using calibration, or checking it with another instrument known to be true.
• precision: measuresments can be made in varying levels of precision. 

• the "truthfulness" of a measure
• measures what it claims to measure

• indicated by its consistency
• Several kinds such as instrument and observation.

• when two different measures of the same people, events, or things vary together
• positive = co-vary in the same direction. As one goes up, the other goes up. As one goes down, the other goes down.
• negative = co-vary in opposite directions. As one goes up, the other goes down. As one goes down, the other goes up.

• Covariation of events: is there a correlation?
• A time-order relationship: did the iv come before the dv?
• The elimination of plausible alternative causes - are there confounding variables?

• occurs when two potentially effective independent variables are allowed to covary simultaneously
• impossible to determine what variable is responsible for any obtained difference in performance
• WHY CONTROL IS IMPORTANT

• research on creating change
• psychologists conduct research in order to change people's lives for the better
• research aimed to change people's lives in "real-world" or natural setting

• researchers seek primarily to understand behavior andmental processses
• "seeking knowledge for its own sake"
• typically carried out in a laboratory setting with the goal of testing a theory about a phenomenon
• research to understand bheavior in laboratory setting

• A logically organized set of propositions (claims, statements, assertions) that serves to define events (concepts), describe relationships among these events, and explain the occurance of these events

• "Is it worth it?" - do the benefits outweigh the risks? by how much? HAS TO BE STRONG YES.
• Subjective evaluation - not one answer, different perspectives might have different answers. Not based on facts, but opinions.
• Weight costs and benefits of a research project for EACH of the following: Participants, society, researcher, insitituion. 
• Asks: Is it worth it? Do the benefits outweigh Risks? Will the study produce valid results?

• the harm or discomfort the participants may experience in the research is not greater than what they might experience in their daily lives or during routine physical or psychological tests.

• a person's explicity expressed willingness to participate in a research project based on a clear understanding of the nature of the research, of the consequences for not participanting, and of all factors that might be expected to influence that person's willingness to participate. 

• refers to the rights of individuals to decide how information about them is to be communicated to others

• can occur either through omission (the withholding of information) or commission (intentionally misinforming participants about an aspect of the research.

• becomes more important when deception is involved
• Discuss misconceptions - why you did the deception, what the reason was behind it.
• What is the Goal of Debriefing? 
1. leave participant with good feeling about research experience
2. talk about research from participant's perspective

• taking credit for anyone else's work or ideas
• When you present a substantial portions or elements of antoher's work as your own. What is substantial portion? - it can be anywhere from 2 words to a whole paper
• Ignorance is not an excuse

• an empirical approach was critical for developing the science of psychology
• computer revolution = key factor in cognition
• debate over whether or not psychology should be more closely afflicated with physical sciences or philosophy

• influences researchers' choice of topics, society's acceptance of findings, and the locations in which research takes place
• Ethnocentrism
• Zeitgeist
• Research has an affect and is affected by society
• Affect what and how
• Whose culture is having - and whose culture should have - an influence

• demands that researchers maintain the highest standards of ethical behavior
• APA code of ethics guides research and helps researchers to evaluate ethical dilemmas
• Activities that constitute violations of scientific integrity: fabrication of data, plagiarism, selective reporting of research findings, failure to acknowledge individual who made significant contributions to the research, misuse of research funds, and unethical treatment of humans or animals. 

• Decisions are based on evidence - scietntists are like lawyers or judges in that they make decisions based on the evidence
• little evidence = suspicion (1 study)
• lots of evidence = conviction (multiple studies/universities/researchers)
• Stronger Evicen = more confident about results

• What should I study
• How do you develop a hypothesis - previous knowledge; literature review; previous research
• Which approach should be used to study research question - multimethod

•  Can it be tested?
• Will it be beneficial?
• Will it get funded?
• Could I develop it in a way in which others would be able to replicate it?
• Can I conduct this study in a scientific manner?
• Is it scientifically important?
• Will anyone be interested (including you)?
• Is this study original or redundant?

• Nonscientific - ambiguous, unclear, no operational definitions
• Scientific - clear definitions; specific.

• Description: define events & their relationships. Quantitative (statistical) or Qualitative (verbal)
• Prediction: predict relationships among variables; correlations
• Explanation: Casual Inference; Generalization
• Application: apply knowledge to improve people's lives; applied vs. basic

1. Beneficence & non-maleficent (benefits; doesn't harm)
2. Fidelity & Responsibility (trust; aware of responsiiblities to society & specific communities)
3. Integrity (Accuracy, Honesty, & Truthfulness)
4. Justice (equal access to research & results)
5. Respect for People's Rights & Dignity (respect dignity & worth; Rights to privacy, confidentiality, and self determination)

• Protects rights of participants
• Committee members:
• @ least 5 members
• @ least 1 outside member
• @ least 1 scientist
• @ least 1 non scientist