Term
| Descriptive Research Stategy- Measuring variables as they exist naturally |
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Definition
Not examining a realtionship
Useful for preliminary research
Purely "descrptive" |
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Term
| Descriptive Research Strategy- Observational Research |
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Definition
Naturalistic Observation
Structred Observation
Case Study
Survey
Archival Research |
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Term
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Definition
Assigns numerical values to reponses and measures
-Focuses on specific behaviors that can be easily quantifed
-Use large samples
-Use subject to the data statistical analyses |
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Term
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Definition
Data are non-numerical and expressed in language and/or images
-Focuses on behavior in natural setting
-Small groups and limited setting
-Describe or capture themes that emerge from data |
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Term
| Observational Research Methdods - Purpose |
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Definition
To gather data on which further studies can be based
-Disprove theories
-Not experiements - designed to be descriptive, no attempt to manipulate environment, descriptive research cannot predict an event, systematic recording of naturally occuring events/behaviors
We tend not to use naturalistic observation (thoughts cannot be observed) |
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Term
| Naturalistic (Field) Observation |
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Definition
The observation of behavior in a natural setting as unobtrusively as possible
Strengths- Behavior observed in real world, useful for non-manipulated behaviors, actual behaviors observed and recorded
Weakness- Time consuming, potential for observer influence, potential for subjective interpretation
Walking and bumping into eachother on the sidewalk |
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Term
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Definition
Engages in the same actitivies as the people being observed in order to observe and record behavior
"Being sane in insane places"
Strengths- When natural observation is possible, get info not accessible otherwise, participation gives unique perspective
Weakness- Time consuming, potential lost of objectivity, Increased chance for observer influence |
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Term
| Structured (Contrived) Observation |
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Definition
Settings arranged specifically to faciliatet the occurence of specific behaviors
-Strange Situation
Strengths- do not have to wait for behaviors to occur
Weakness- Less natural |
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Term
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Definition
| In depth study and detailed descrption of a single individual (or small group) |
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Term
| Applications of the Case Study |
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Definition
Rare phenomena and unusual clinical cases (Genie)
Case studies as counterexamples
Physchobiography- applies psycholoigcal theory to explain an indvidual |
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Term
| Case Study Design -Strengths |
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Definition
| Strengths- Not averaged over a diverse group, detailed descritption, vivd/powerful/convincing, compatiable with clinical work, can study rare and unusal events, can identify excpetions to the rule |
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Term
| Case Study Design- Weaknesses |
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Definition
| Limited generalization, potential for selective bias, potential for subjective information |
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Term
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Definition
| Gathers detailed self-reported information from a large number of individuals |
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Term
| Inidrect Observation of Behavior |
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Definition
| Arichival Research- Measuring behaviors from historical records |
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Term
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Definition
Observation based on existing info
Strength- Can address questions that can be addressed in no other ways
Weaknesses- Difficult to obtain, cannot be sure of accuracy of records |
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Term
| Running an Observational Study |
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Definition
Decide on what exactly you are going to observe
Decide a strategy or method to collect information
Establish ways of measuring your reliability
Decide how specific you want the info. to be |
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Term
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Definition
Continuous descprition of what the observers sees during the course of events
-Costly and time consuming
-Results in a huge amount of data
-Least control for observer bias |
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Term
| Interval Method (Time Sampling) |
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Definition
The entire observation period gets broken down into intervals of observation and intervals of recording
-Used when you know a behavior will occur repeatedly
-Reduces how much info. you lose due to fatigue
-Minimes errors due to forgetting
-Recording is usally categorical, thus very simple |
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Term
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Definition
| Measure the frequency of a behavior in a given time period |
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Term
| Duration Method (Event Sampling) |
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Definition
| Wait for the event to occur then start recording the length of the episode |
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Term
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Definition
Behaviors must not be influenced/disturbed
Some degree of subjective interpretation
Measure Relability |
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Term
| Observational Research Strengths |
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Definition
Terrific source of hypotheses for experiments
Naturalistic- recording actual behavior
High external validity
Flexible
Great method for collecting data |
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Term
| Observational Research Weaknesses |
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Definition
Ethical concerns
Reactivity- people know they are being watched and may change their behaviors
Humans are fallible observers- we miss a lot
Description is open to bias |
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Term
| Possible Issues in Observation |
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Definition
Observer bias
Confirmation bias
Casual bias
Observer drift- observers way of observing may shift over the course of investigation
Sampling- we cannot observe everything we may miss imporrant behaviors
Inter rater reliability is a measure of observational quality |
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Term
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Definition
Construct- Aggression
Operational Definitions- behavioral observation, parent or teacher ratings,peer nominations, test situations, visits to headmaster |
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Term
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Definition
Self Report (easiest)
Physiological (PET scan, MRI)-Expensive/ unnatural settings
Behavioral- Measure the ways a construct reveals itself |
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Term
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Definition
Label and categorize observations with no quantitiave distinctions
-Colors, political party, major, gender |
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Term
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Definition
Categories organized in an order sequence terms of size of magnitude
-Year in school, place in a race, 2-3-4 star restaurant |
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Term
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Definition
Ordered categories that are all intervals of exactly the same size, arbitrary 0
-Farenheight temp (0 is not absensece of temp. can be lower), golf scores (above or below par) |
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Term
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Definition
Interval scale with an absoulte 0 (absence of variable), meaningful ratios
-Height, weight, reaction time, freqency of behavior |
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Term
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Definition
Pros- Allows a more complete measure of the construct in question
Cons- Desynchrony (measure may not be equal- measuring different things) may cause difficulty interpreting results of data analysis |
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Term
| Sensitivity and Range Effects |
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Definition
Measurement tools must be sensitive enough to record changes when changes are actually there (as perfect as possible)
Ceiling effect- cluster of scores at high end (test too easy)
Floor effect- scores at low end (test too hard) |
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Term
| Relationship between reliability and validity |
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Definition
Reliability indices do not indicate wheather a particular measure is an accurate measure of the variable
Can have reliability without validity
Cant have validity with no reliability
Precision-Degree of reliability
Accuracy-Degree of Validity |
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Term
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Definition
| The concent of the measure appears to reflect the construct being measured |
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Term
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Definition
| The content of the measure is linked to the universe of content that defines the construct |
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Term
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Definition
| The measure of a construct accuratly predicts a hypotheseized behavior (SAT- how well youll do in college) |
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Term
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Definition
How well a measure performs concurrent with another established measure
-Give already estabished test with new test- if the results are similar it would be valid |
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Term
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Definition
| The measure of a consturct is related to the measure of the same construct |
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Term
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Definition
| The measure ofa construct is NOT related to other measures that are theoretically different |
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Term
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Definition
Interrator- If you have two observers watching the same behavior, their scores should agree with each other
Internal Consistency- Within a test, people should respond in a consistent wat to all of the questions
Test-retest- If you give a test to a person more than once, they should get about the same score each time |
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Term
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Definition
| Split items in a questionnaire in half, score each half, then calculate the consistency between two scores for a group of participants |
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Term
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Definition
| Compare every item on the test with every other item on that test |
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Term
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Definition
| Compare performance on each item to performance on complete measure |
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Term
| Ways to increase reliability |
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Definition
Include multiple measures for each construct
Include multiple items within each measure
Have a good operational definitions |
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Term
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Definition
| The individual making the measurments can introduce simple human error |
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Term
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Definition
Small changes to the environment that differ from one measurment to another
time of day/ lighting |
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Term
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Definition
Less reliability will have a flatter and wider distribution
More reliability wont be as spread out- scores clustered around mean |
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Term
| Every Measurment Includes |
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Definition
True Score= Measurment of real value on a variable
Error= Incorrect responses caused by chance or poor test design |
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Term
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Definition
| The degree to which the measurment process measures the varibales it claims to measure |
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Term
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Definition
| The stability or consistency of the measurement |
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Term
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Definition
Characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals
-Anything that can be measured
-An abstract concept that must be translated into concrete forms of observation or manipulation |
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Term
| Two important aspects of measurement |
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Definition
Often there is not a one-to-one relationship between te variable and the measurments obtained
Different methods may be used to measure the same variable, which may lead to different findings |
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Term
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Definition
Describe characteristics of the situation of environment
Temp (hot/cold), location (suburban/urban) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Participant or Subject Variables |
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Definition
Decibe characteristics of the participant or subject
-Gender, age, ethnicity |
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Term
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Definition
Bridges on variable to another
-It is influenced by one variable an influences another |
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Term
| Threats to external validity |
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Definition
Any characteristic of a study that limits the generalization of the results
-From a sample to general populatiion
-From one research study to another
-From a research study to a real-world situation |
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Term
| Three Categories of Confounding Variables |
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Definition
General ( All Studies)- Environmental variables
Group Related (Studies comparing groups)- Assignment bias
Time-Related (Studies comparing one group over time) |
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Term
| Threats to Internal Validity |
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Definition
Any factor that allows for an alternative explanation
-Extranous Variables- Any vairble other than those specifically being studied
-Confounding Variables-Any extraneous variable that changes systematically along with the 2 variables being studies |
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Term
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Definition
| The extent to which the operational definition of a variable reflects the true theoretical meaning of the variable |
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Term
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Definition
| Research produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the relationship between two variables |
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Term
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Definition
| Extent research can be generalized to people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics than those used in the study |
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Term
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Definition
The truth of the research/accuracy of the results
Does the study accurately answer the question it was intended to answer? |
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Term
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Definition
The extent to which your conclusions are correct
Statistically” significance, power, meaning of test utilized
Logically: are you over interpreting your results? |
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Term
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Definition
| Any component of a research study that introduces questions or raises doubts about the quality of the research or accuracy of the research results |
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Term
| Critically Evaluating Research |
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Definition
Construct Validity- Evaluate the adequacy of the operational definition
Internal Validity- Evaluate the extend that it was the independent variable that caused the changes or differences in the dependent variable |
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Term
| Advantages of Multiple Methods |
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Definition
Artificiality of experiments limits generalizability of the results
Field experiments lack control, but provides natural context
Ethical and practical considerations
You cannot assign children into a “spanking” group
Participant variables are nonexpermimental
You cannot assign someone into a gender group
Description of behavior
A major goal of psychological science is to provide accurate descriptions of events |
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Term
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Definition
Inferences of cause and effect require three elements:
1. Temporal precedence
2. Covariation between two variables
3. Need to eliminate plausible alternative explanations |
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Term
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Definition
Compare difference on one variable between a grouping variable (two or more groups)
Intended to answer cause-and-effect questions
Rigorous control
Random assignment to groups |
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Term
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Definition
Intended to demonstrate a relationship between variables, but cannot explain it
No cause-and-effect
No rigorous controls
Potential for confounds
No manipulation |
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Term
| The Operational Definition |
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Definition
A procedure for measuring and defining a construct
Specifies a measurement procedure (a set of operations) for measuring an external, observable behavior
Using the resulting measurements as a definition and a measurement of the hypothetical construct
Limitations
Easily oversimplified
Often influenced by extraneous, unknown factors |
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Term
| Method of Tenacity (Not scientific) |
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Definition
Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it
-Based on habit and superstitions
-Mere exposé effect – More we are exposed to something, the more we tend to believe that (ex. Opposites attract)
Problem: May not be accurate, and there is no method for correction |
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Term
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Definition
| Illusion of a relationship between two things (people from small towns are so nice!) |
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Term
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Definition
Q= Question
What is the main theoretical question being addressed?
M=Methods
Give a concise summary of the methods being utilized
R=Results
Give a concise summary of important results
I= Implications
Explain the implications of the reported results for the theoretical questions |
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Term
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Definition
Impersonal style: not a personal story should be written in objective tone
Verb tense: use past or present perfect tense
Avoid biased language: free of implied or irrelevant evaluation of groups |
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Term
| Method of Authority (Non-scientific) |
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Definition
Information is accepted because you got it from an authority on the subject
Problems
Relies on assumed expertise of the person you asked
We assume the expertise can be generalized to include your question
Expert might be biased or influenced by subjectivity
Unquestioned acceptance of “expert” knowledge |
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Term
| The Rational Method/ Rationalism (Non-scientific) |
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Definition
Answers questions through logical reasoning (Philosophical)
Premise statements- Describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true
Arguments- logically combines presumptions to yield a conclusion |
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Term
| Problems with The Rational Method |
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Definition
Premise statements may be untrue
Not all possibilities may be considered
Logical Fallacies
1. All psychologists are human
2. Some humans are women
Conclusion- Therefore, some psychologists are women |
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Term
| The Empirical Method (Non Scientific) |
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Definition
Uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge
Problems-
Prior knowledge, expectations, feelings and beliefs can influence perception
We often misperceive the world around us
Often dangerous |
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Term
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Definition
1. To describe behavior
2. To predict behavior
3. To determine the causes of behavior
4. To understand or explain behavior |
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Term
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Definition
Describing Behavior
1.Careful Observations
-Cunningham’s (1997) examination of judgments of physical attractiveness over time
2. Predicting Behavior
-Regular observations that two events are systematically related to one another, it is possible to make predictions |
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Term
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Definition
1. Temporal Precedence
2. Covariation of the cause and effect
3. Rule out alternative explanations |
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Term
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Definition
Tries to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior
Studies often address theoretical issues concerning phenomena such as cognition, emotion, learning, personality development, social behavior |
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Term
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Definition
Conducted to address issues in which there are practical problems and potential solutions
Study results have immediate practical implications |
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Term
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Definition
| Generalize from a small set of specific examples to the complete set of all possible examples |
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Term
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Definition
1. Science is empirical- we use firsthand observations to test hypotheses
2. Science is public- you share your findings, its not just for you
3. Science is objective- you shouldn’t have a personal vested interest |
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Term
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Definition
-Use of scientific sounding terms to substantiate claims that are not accurate or true
Astrology
Marketing ploys that claim to enhance memory or sex |
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Term
| -Characteristics of pseudoscience |
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Definition
Hypotheses generated are typically not testable
If scientific tests are reported, methodology is not scientific and validity is questionable
Supportive evidence tends to be anecdotal or relies heavily on “authorities” or “experts”
Claims tend to be vague and ignore conflicting evidence |
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Term
| Scientific Method 5 steps |
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Definition
1. Observe behavior or other phenomena
1. Inductive Reasoning
2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis)
1. Variables
3. Use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction
1. Deductive Reasoning/ the rational method
4. Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observation
1. The Empirical Method
5. Use the observations |
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Term
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Definition
Physical considerations
Follow protocols and train researchers
Monitor participant’s status and provide needed follow up care
Recruit appropriate populations
Psychological Considerations
Remind participants of the right to withdraw
Provide counseling or support and thoroughly debrief
Social, Legal, Economic Protection |
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Term
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Definition
Pregnant Women
Human fetuses
Prisoners
Children- Parents signs consent; child provide assent (an indication of willingness to participate) Failure to object is NOT assent
Mentally disabled persons- Legal guardian signs consent, participant provides assent
Economically or educationally disadvantaged persons |
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Term
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Definition
1. Resolving Ethical Issues
2. Competence
3. Human Relations
4. Privacy and Confidentiality
5. Advertising and other public statements
6. Record keeping and fees
7. Education and Training
8. Research and Publication
9. Assessment
10. Therapy |
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Term
| Institutional Review Board (IB) |
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Definition
Headed by scientists/ nonscientists in any institution/ agency conducting research with human participants
1. Minimization of risks to participants
2. Reasonable risk in relation to benefits
3. Equitable selection
4. Informed consent
5.Documentation of informed consent
6. Data Monitoring
7. Privacy and confidentiality |
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Term
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Definition
Public Health” Study conducted from 1946-1948 in Guatemala
Penicillin efficacy trials
Injection of gonorrhea and Syphilis by U.S. Government researchers into 696 subjects
Guatemalan prisoners, mental patients, women
No knowledge or consent |
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Term
| The Miligram Study (1961) |
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Definition
Will participants obey with orders that conflict with their personal conscience?
-Confederate Leaner
Learner mentions heart condition before start of experiment
-Participant
Told to play the role of the “teacher”
“Leaner” must learn word pairs
Administer increasing levels of shock for incorrect answer
-Prompts used if resistant
Please continue…. You have no other choice, you must go on |
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Term
| Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1972) |
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Definition
“Public Health” study conducted in Alabama between 1932-1972
To study the natural progression of the disease
399 poor, rural African American men with syphilis recruited
Free medical exams, free meals, and free burial
Told they were being treated for “bad blood”
Penicillin validated as effective treatment in 1947! |
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Term
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Definition
Compensation that is too attractive may:
Blind participants to the risks or impair their ability to exercise good judgment
Prompt participants to lie or conceal information
Considerations must include participants:
Medical, employment, and educational status
Financial, emotional, and community resources
Therapeutic Misconception
The tendency for participants to downplay or ignore the risks posed to their own well being due to their belief that their participation has been designed for their own benefit |
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Term
| Documentation of Informed Consent |
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Definition
Form must contain:
Overview and Purpose of the Study
Descriptions of Procedures
Potential Risks and Benefits
Costs for Participation (usually none)
Compensation
Confidentiality (including limitations)
Alternatives to Participating
Voluntary Participation
Contact info for Principal Investigator
Form must be signed by the participant (or legal representative) |
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Term
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Definition
Three fundamental aspects of informed consent
1 Voluntariness- Consent must be freely given or truly voluntary
2. Comprehension- Individuals must have the mental capacity to understand the information presented to them
3. Disclosure- Researchers must disclose all aspects of the study |
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Term
APA Ethics Code (2010)
5 Basic Principles |
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Definition
1. Benefience and Nonmalefience- Do not harm, maxamize benefits, and minimize harm
2. Fidelity and Responsibiliity- Protecting the privacy/confidentiality/Anonymity
3. Integrity- Full disclosure of any conflicts of interest, only use deception when there is no other method for aquiring unbias data (must debrief)
4. Justice- Individuals and groups must be treated fairly, and equitably in terms of bearing the burderns and recieving the beenfits of research
5. Respect for Peoples Rights and Dignity-Individuals should be treatd as autonomous agents (independent person) |
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Term
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Definition
Respect for persons
Benefience
Justice |
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