Term
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Definition
| offspring produced by fusion of a male (sperm) and female (egg) gametes to form a zygote |
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Term
| Types of asexual reproduction (4): Binary Fission |
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Definition
| separation of a parent into two or more individuals of about the same size |
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Term
Types of asexual reproduction (4): budding
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Definition
New individuals arise from outgrowth of existing ones (offspring smaller than parent)
Common in plants and fungi (few animals- cnidarians, worms, corals, hydras_ |
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Term
Types of asexual reproduction (4): Fragmentation
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Definition
A new organism grows from a fragment of the parent (may or may not be intentional)
Common in plants and fungi
few animals: cnidarians, sea stars, woms, corals, hydras |
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Term
Types of asexual reproduction (4): Parthenogenesis
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Definition
is the development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg (develops into clone)
found in plants and invert
Rare in vertebrates (reptiles: snakes, turtles, lizards-lesbian lizards, komodo dragon- can only produce females)
Sharks |
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Term
| Some cloning can occur following sexual reproduction: polyembryony |
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Definition
cloning of zygote/embryo following fertilization (twins)
Armadillos (common to have one zygote that divides and divides) |
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Term
| Costs of sexual reproduction (4): Diltution of parental genes |
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Definition
| Can not transfer all genes to offspring, have to pick and choose |
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Term
Costs of sexual reproduction (4): cost of producing males
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Definition
| Producing males means producing less females which equals less offspring. |
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Term
Costs of sexual reproduction (4): sex is expensive
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Definition
| Time and energy! Attracting a mate and stuff |
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Term
Costs of sexual reproduction (4): sex is dangerous
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Definition
| Fireflies may attract females of another species and eat them! |
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Term
Benefits of sexual reproduction (2):
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Definition
More variation! Better able to adapt.
Resistant alleles can spread through a population so they are more disease resistant!
Combination of favorable mutations can be brought together faster! (important in a changing environment) |
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Term
Benefits of sexual reproduction (2): Elimination of delerious mutations
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Definition
| Asexual lineages may accumulate negative mutations! Recombination may allow you to ditch negative mutations |
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Term
| Sex determination (3): Genotypic-most common |
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Definition
XX/XY determination systems-Homogametic sex (chromosomes are the same-mammals females are XX), Heterogametic sex (chromosomes are different-mammals, males are XY)
ZY/ZZ determination systems-birds (females are the heterogametic sex |
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Term
Sex determination (3): temperature
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Definition
| Sex determined while eggs are incubating in the nest (crocodiles, many turtles, some lizards) |
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Term
Sex determination (3): Behavioural-Sex reversals
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Definition
| In reef fish sex initially determined by genes |
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Term
| Respiratory systems are also called... |
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Definition
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Term
| Why do we need gas exchange? |
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Definition
1. Gas exchange aquires oxygen (needed for aerobic respiration of the monomers from digestion-ATP),
2. disposes of carbon dioxide,
3. and may be important in vocalization
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Term
| Respiratory system is influenced by.. |
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Definition
metabolic demands
Total metabolism is proportional to body mass (endothermy vs. ectothermy)
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Term
| The larger the animal the easier/harder it is to aquire oxygen by diffusion from the exterior to the interior of the animal, and it is easier/harder to regulate temperature? |
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Definition
It is harder to aquire oxygen
But easier to regulate temperature |
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Term
| Respiratory gas exchange surface must scale with...body volume/body length? |
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Definition
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Term
| 4 types of gas transfer mechanisms: body surface |
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Definition
oxygen and CO2 diffuse in and out of cells
-have to stay wet
-need high SA to V
(Flatworms, cnidarians) |
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Term
4 types of gas transfer mechanisms: Gills (aquatic animals)
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Definition
Easy to keep wet, but oxygen content of water is much lower than air.
-high gill SA can exceed body SA
-ventilation: water is moved past gills by muscular activity (ventilation-water is denser than air)
-countercurrent exchange |
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Term
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Definition
Water and blood moving in opposite directions within gills water flows across gills and O2 progressively diffuses into capillaries.
Maximize oxygen diffusion between water and blood (blood profressively picks up more oxygen via diffusion)
Maximize difference in concentration
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Term
4 types of gas transfer mechanisms: tracheal system
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Definition
Insects have an open circulatory system (not involved in gas exchange) and NO lungs.
Aquire oxygen and remove CO2 by the tracheal system
Spiracle (entry point for gases)
Branching tracheal system-goes to each individual cell |
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Term
4 types of gas transfer mechanisms: lungs
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Definition
(mammals, birds, reptiles and many amphibians use lungs)
Lungs are highly vascularized with high SA and low diffusion distance |
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Term
How do humans breath with lungs?
Negative pressure breathing! |
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Definition
air is pulled in like a suction pump.
Inhalation: rib cage expands, diaphragm contracts (pulls down), air pulled in |
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Term
| Medulla moniters CO2 levels |
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Definition
Controls breathing, judges amount of oxygen needed by amount of carbon dioxide present.
Brain damage can happen because of less CO2, if you lower CO2 levels brain doesn't realize that you are low on oxygen |
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Term
| O2 transport in blood is increased 70z by _______. a protein with 4 subunits |
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Definition
Hemoglobin
Each subunit contains a heme group, which contains iron.
Iron reacts with oxygen (oxyhemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin-carbon monoxide)
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Term
Hemoglobin: must bind oxygen reversibly.
Conformation is very sensative to pH
High CO2 changes blood pH->hemoglobin releases more oxygen |
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Definition
Loading at lungs (high pH)
unloading to active tissues (low pH)
Low pH causes hemoglobin to unfold and it lets go of its oxygen |
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Term
| Oxygen is transported as a gas. T/F? |
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Definition
| False. Oxygen is transported as oxyhemoglobin |
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Term
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Definition
Little grape type things on lungs that increase the exchange SA.
Diffusion of oxygen occurs between the alveoli and the red blood cells |
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Term
| Why is hyperventilating dangerous? |
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Definition
| decreased CO2 concentration can trick the brain into believing it has more oxygen |
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