Bullying is a series of unprovoked repeated acts of aggression when there is a power differential in place. 

1. Imposed from a position of power: Physical or social (knowing vulnerabilites, group size, status, social role, systematic minority, etc) 
2. Repeated over time: each repetition solidifies the power differential. 

• Ethology: study of animal behaviour with an evolutionary purpose
• Zygote: fusion of sperm and ovum 
• Chromosome: Basic unit of heredity
• Gene: Funcitonal sequence of chemicals providing instructions for amino acids
• Mitosis: Cell division/reproduction
• Meiosis: Cell division that produces sex cells. 

There are 64 trillion different possible recombinations of a sperm and ovum to produce a zygote. All are different. 

How do infants develop self-awareness?:

What is the rouge test? 

• Placing a mark on the infants forehead, and placing them infront of a mirror. If they reach for their own forehead to remove the mark, they are self aware. If they reach for the mirror, they are not self aware. 

1. No self-awareness: mirror is an extension of the world, rather than a reflection
2. Differentiation: Mirror is unique, notices the difference between the mirror and the surroundings 
3. Situation: Aware that the mirror is unique to itself. Able to see the link between actions and what is seen in the mirror
4. Identification: recognizing that mirror image is self, not someone shadowing. 
5. Permanence: Self is an unchanging entity across time and appearance. 
6. Self-Conciousness: Meta-awarness of perception of self, and other's perceptions of self

We engage in good behaviour because: 

• we are being observed
• it is reinforced
• situational factors
• self regulation

We engage in bad behaviour because: 

• situational factors
• lack of moral mechanisms (psychopathy)
• Moral disengagement: allowing us to avoid self condemnation

1. Oral stage (birth-1 year): libido is focused on mouth as source of pleasure. 
2. Anal stage (1-3 years) : Libido focuses on anus, toilet training creates conflict between biological urges and social norms. 
3. Phallic stage (3-6 years): Libido focuses on genitals.  Resolution of the oedipus/electra complex to identify with the same-sex parent. 
4. In-between period (preschool-5/6 years): Overcoming fantasies about punishment, pleasure, and auto-erotic satisfaction. Genital love for father. "essence of masochism" 
5. Latent Period (6-12 years): Psychic energy is focused on academic and same-sex social achievement
6. Genital stage (12+ years): Youth seek to engage adn establish mature sexual relationships and persue reproduction. 

• Contextualizes development into stages and provides reasoning for conflict between biological urges and social norms. (Interaction and regulation of Id, Ego, and Superego)

• Must overcome negative emotional responses when approving of personal moral violations
• Approval take significantly more time than condemnation

Little to no memory before age 3. 

• Childhood Amnesia: Lack of language and understanding makes memory almost impossible due to do lack of verbal association and symbolism
• False memory: a fabricated or distorted recollection of an event that did not occur. 
• Common-Thread: Autobiographical memories feel real, participants generate details in a coherent but false picture. 
• Theoretical Underpinning: Gaps in autobiographical memories are filled in by internal sources (Gist/verbatim snippets of memories) and external sources (interviewer misinformation, leading questions) 

1. Growth is driven by experiences in role taking
2. affective reasoning: emotions that cause concern for others
3. importance of automaticity: ability to solve problems automatically and unconciously. 

1. Personal: Causes serious bodily harm to a specific person, not caused by way of dismantling a greater threat
2. Impersonal: anything that does not fit personal criteria

Level 1: Preconventional Morality - rules are external to the self, conformity is based on gaining rewards and avoiding punishment. Right is what child can get away with, or what is satisfying. 

• Stage 1: Punishment/Obedience Orientation - morality dependent on consequences, unpunished = right
• Stage 2: Instrumental Hedonism - Conforms to rules for personal satisfaction

Level 2: Conventional Morality - moral values are internalized. Strives for praise generated by obeying rules. Winning approval and maintaing social order. Perspectives of others are recognized and considered.

• Stage 3: Good Boy/Girl - what is right is what is approved of by others
• Stage 4: Authority/Social-Order Maintenance - what is right is what conforms to the rules of authority, belief that rules maintain social order

Level 3: Postconventional Morality - morality defined by the individual based on broad principles. Understanding that authority based values are not always moral. Perspective of all others are considered.

• Stage 5: Morality of contract, individual rights, and democracy - understand underlying principles of law. Concern for democratic merit of laws, question and change laws that concern human rights. 
• Stage 6: Morality of individual principles of conscience - define right/wrong based on self-generated abstract principles of human rights. 

1. Early Adult Transition (17-22): Period of questioning, making the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Exploring adult identities. Forming a dream vision of goals. 
2. Emerging adult world (22-28): Establishing first life structure, testing career choice, getting married, not a period of questioning. Relatively stable. 
3. Age 30 transition (28-33): Period of questioning career and marital choices, is it really what they wanted? May make small or large life changes. 
4. Settling down (33-40): Time for building a new/different life structure. Taking steps to realize dreams, ambitious and task-oriented. Unreflective, stable. 
5. Midlife Transition (40-45): Major period of questioning, questioning worthiness of dreams. If unsuccessful, facing reality that dreams may not be realized. Major life changes occur (midlife crisis) 

• proxy: socially mediated, used when direct control is not possible/desired. Getting an other with access to resources or expertise to act on behalf of themselves to secure a better result. 
• Collective: Socially interdependent effort, shared belief in collective power to achieve results. Teamwork, cooperation. 

• Survival reflexes have a clear adaptive value. Appear at varying stages of development and varying levels of signifcance. (Rooting: turning head in direction of stimulus applied to cheek. Disappears by 5 months. Sucking: sucking on anything that touches the roof of the mouth modified by experience. Disappears by 7 months.) 
• Primitive relfexes have no clear purpose, all disappear by 1.5 years and indicate normal neural development. 
• Babinsky: fanning and curling of toes when palm of foot is stroked
• Moro: starling relfex, fanning and curling of limbs in response to being startled. 
• Babkin: applying pressure to the palms causes rotation and flexion of the head. 
• Galant: Stroking one side of the back will cause the infant to swing in that direction. 

1. Attentional processes: A model cannot be imitated if we are not aware of it. Generally a distinct or desired model. (ex. celebrities) 
2. Retention Processes: frequent imitation of models long after observing them. Stimulus contingency, associations between stimuli such as verbal cues. (children under 5 cannot associate words due to their limited vocabulary, limiting their ability to imitate) 
3. Motor Reproduction Responses: to reproduce a behaviour, one must have the necessary fine and gross motor skills. Young children often learn patterns of responses rather than physical ability. 
4. Reinforcement and Motivational Processes: 

• Acquisition: observing and gaining knowledge
• Performance: ability/willingness to complete a task 
• self-reinforcement evaluations of own behaviour 

1. Intentionality: agency refers to acts done intentionaly. Intentions are a cognitive represenation of a future course of action. (pro-active commiment, plan of action)
2. Forethought: Forseeable future is converted to current motivators/regulators. Behaviour is motivated by expected outcomes. Outcome expectations are derived from observations. Regulating the present to fit a future goal 
3. Self-Reactiveness: Agent is a motivator & regulator. 3 processes to action; 1) self-monitoring 2) self-guidance 3) self-reactions
4. Self-Relfection: metacognition of adequacy of thoughts and actions. Judgements of accuracy of thoughts/actions vs. outcomes of actions by self and others/social norms/knowledge. Impacts efficacy

1. Move from failing to understanding conservation: Objects properties do not change when superficial appearance changes
2. Move from perceptual salience to logicla reasoning: Understanding is no longer from appearances, but by internal operations that can be applied to a variety of problems 
3. Move from transductive reasoning to deductive reasoning: No longer combining unrelated facts that lead to faulty case-effect conclusions, but using logical reasoning of factual information to draw cause-effect conclusions. 
4. Move from egocentrism to less egocentrism: Now able to see other perspectives and thoughts that are different from own. 
5. Move from single to multiple classification: Now able to classify objects using more than one dimension. 

1. Introduced the unconcious/subconcious mind
2. Using data to inform practice: first psychologist to use observations in treatment processes
3. Recognizing that humans are complex and driven by known and unknown internal and external facotrs
4. Acknowleding stages of development to set the stage for future research 
5. Sexual fantasies: Suppressing sexual urges causes psychological problems.Recognized the need for sex education. Recognized that excessive punishment for sexual behaviours led to unhealthy feelings of shame. 

1. Social Learning: Past experience, and rewards for 'good'behaviour
2. Tension Reduction: vicarious distress
3. Norms and Roles: learned through social reinforcement and modeling (norm salience: must pay attention to norm to alter behaviour)
4. Attribution: Inferences about causes of events (more likely to help an innocent bystander, what are the characteristics of the person helping?) (pro-social behaviour boosts self-esteem)
5. Moral Reasoning: situations are puzzles, oh which the key to solving is the level of moral reasoning of the individual

1. Incontravertable False Evidence: "your parents said..."
2. Misuse of presumed knowledge: "you repressed this.."
3. Pressure: "most people remember if they try hard enough.."
4. Poor Retrieval Techniques: Suggestive/Leading questions, guided imagery
5. Positive Reinforcement: "Great! Looks like it really came back to you!" 

Victims: 

• 2/3 passive, 1/3 aggressive; poor problem solving skills, low self-esteem, from over-protective household, have little to no conflict resolution skills
• Increase rates of depression, anxiety and psychosomatic problems; higher rates of absenteeism from schoo, poor academic performance, feelings of social ineffectivness, and interpersonal difficulties.

Perpetrators: 

• hot-tempered, low tolerance for frustration, low self-esteem, higher prevalence of ADHD, positive views about violence due to behaviour reinforcement, aggressive attribution bias (not recognizing their own level of aggression in relation to others) 
• Increased rates of depression, anxiety, and psychosomatic problems; increased risk of: substance/alcohol abuse, anti-social behaviour in adulthood, and underachievement in school 

1. Reciprocity
2. Empathy
3. Consolation
4. Prosocial Tendencies
5. Fairness 

1. Pre-occupied: Desperate for love to feel worthy as a person. Worries about abandonment, expresses anxiety and danger openly. Negative model of self, Positive model of others. 
2. Fearful: Desires relationships but doesn't feel worthy and fears intimacy. Lacks strategies to meet attachment needs. Negative model of self, and others. 
3. Secure: Healthy balance of autonomy and attachment. Freedome to explore. Positive model of self, and others. 
4. Dismissive: Dismissive of relationships, avoids intimacy as a protection against pain, shuts out emotions. Positive model of self, Negative model of others. 

1. Diffusion: Have yet to experience crisis, and has no commited belief. No crisis, no commitment. "i haven't thought much about religion, not really sure what I believe." 
2. Foreclosure: No crisis has been experienced and identity is secure, but has not been thought about critically. No crisis, yes commitment. "I am a Catholic because my parents were Catholic and that is just how it is."
3. Moratorium: Thinking about identity, but have yet to come to a conclusion. Yes crisis, no commitment. "I am thinking critically about religion, but I am not sure what I believe yet."
4. Identity achievement: Identity crisis has been resolved, and beliefs are known. Yes crisis, yes commitment. "I have thought long and hard about religion, and I am confident in my beliefs." 

1. Actual Performance: increased success positively influence self-efficacu, increased failures negatively influence self-efficacy. Failures attributed to self; lack of skills/effort. 
2. Vicarious Experience: Inferring potential personal success from similair others successes. 
3. Verbal Persuasion: Others positively encouraging behaviours causes an increase in performance. Still limited by abilities
4. Physiological Cues: Perception of body feedback. Is sweating good/bad, etc. 

1. Decentration: Ability to focus on multiple aspects of a problem at once
2. Reversability: Able to mentally undo or reverse an action
3. Transformational Thought: Ability to conceptualize the processes of change from one state to another. 

Erikson's 9th stage was created to showcase the unique challenges faced in advanced old age. There is a redefinition of time, space, and objects. "Gerotrancendence" 

Statements: 

• I have moved beyond the fear of death
• I enjoy the slower pace of life in old age
• I feel free from the stresses of life
• I feel closer to those who have gone before me
• I can accept the changes brought about by aging 

Premise: Individual is pushed through conflicts at sequential levels of development by biological and social forces. 

1. Trust vs. Mistrust: Hope (birth-1 year): Learn to trust caregiver
2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Guilt: Will (1-3 years): children must learn to assert their will and do things on their own. 
3. Initiative vs. Guilt: Purpose (3-6 years): child must learn to carry out actions without infringing on the rights of others
4. Industry vs. Inferiority: Competence (6-12 years): child must master academic and social skills to keep up with peers. 
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion: Fidelity (12-20 years): Establish social and vocational identities. 
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation: Love (20-40 years): Individual seeks to form a shared identity with a significant other
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation: Care (40-60 years): individual must feel like they are creating something that will outlive them, either as parents or in the workplace. 
8. Integrity vs. Despair: Wisdom (60-80 years): Individual must come to see life as meaningful. 

1. Sensorimotor (birth-1 year): Uses sense and motor actions to explore the world around them. Innate relfexes, develop capacity for symbolic thought. Ex. Purposefully picking up a toy repeatedly to cause a change in the environment
2. Pre-Operational (2-7 years): Language, pretend play, and problem solving. Thinking is not yet logical, and very ego-centric. Ex. Not forgiving another child for breaking his toy, because he cannot realize that the other child did not intend to break it. 
3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Mentally classify, add and act on concrete objects. Solve real world problems using trial-and-error. Difficulty with hypothetical/abstract concepts. "Understands conservation, but cannot visualize it."
4. Formal Operations (12+ years): Understands hypothetical/abstract concepts, able to form hypothesis and use scientific method to solve problems. Long-term thinking. Ex. Ability to hypothesize possible outcomes from a planned future action before completing it. 

• Systematic changes and continuites over the lifespan involving gains & losses as well as neutral changes in the individual. 

1. Prenatal: Conception - birth
2. Infancy: birth - 2 years
3. Preschool: 2 - 5/6 years
4. Middle Childhood: 6 - 12
5. Adolescence: 12 - 20
6. Early Adulthood: 20 - 40
7. Middle Adulthood: 40 - 65
8. Late Adulthood: 65+

• Toddler: 1-3
• Emerging Adulthood: 18-25
• Young old: 65-75
• Old old: 75-85
• Oldest old: 85+ 

What is empathy?

What is the empathy-altruism hypothesis?

What are the consequences of high and low empathy?

• empathy: Other orientated emotional response congruent with the periceved welfare of another person
• Empathy/Altruism hypothesis: Motivation for altruism is empathy, evoked by emotion. Ultimate goal is helping the person being empathized. 
• High empathy: more pro-social behaviour, less aggression & social withdrawal, more socially sensitive
• Low empathy: Opposite characteristics of high empathy, associated with Autism spectrum disorders, and interpersonal impairments  

"ability to distinguish right from wrong, and act on this distinction, as well as to experience pride when doing something right, and guilt/shame when doing something wrong."

• Superego controls plans made by the ego that are fueled by the Id's urges. 
• Formed during the phallic stage, while identifying with the same-sex parent. (Parent inside your head effect) 
• Emotions are important to morality, early relationships with parents contribute to moral development. (Morals must be internalized to behave morally when not being observed) 

How we learn: 

• Differential Association: by interacting with others, we learn normative patterns 
• Differential Reinforcement: Balance of anticipated/actual rewards/punishments following behaviours
• When first initiated, crime is generally an imitation of a model 
• Social reinforcement is most important, since it generally takes place in an environment that reinforces miconduct

Empirical Evidence

• Differential Association is the strongest predictor
• Changes in opportunity structures provide the best chance for changing normative influence. 

• Video games are simulated experiences
• Repeated simulation of anti-social behaviour is shown to increase actual anti-social behaviour
• Increasing realism increases the strength of negative effects

Support:

• meta-analyses support the theory that violent video games increases in aggressive behaviours, cognitions, and affect; as well as decreases in pro-social behaviours and attitudes

Criticisms: 

• controls used in studies are often poor, and not related. 
• If effect is due to priming, the effects should be short lived
• If not due to priming, effect should continue increasing until an opportunity to release the aggressions is presented

Definition: The tendency to see ones romantic partner as more attractive than themselves. 

Theoretical Underpinning: Based on theory of positive illusions. 

Pros: Reproduction, what-is-beautiful-is-good bias, strengthens desire to be in relationship

Cons: increases anxious jealousy. 

• Regarding delated gratification
• Children given the option of one marshmallow now, or if they wait 15 minutes, they can have two marshmallows
• only 1/3 of children delayed gratification to recieve two marshmallows 

When: by 2 years infants start to internalize morals, and anticipate disapproval

How: Accumulated evaluation of social learning experiences. 

Basic Social Learning experiences:

• Actions have consequences
• watching companions reactions
• associating negative emotions with moral violation
• exert self-control when tempted to violate rules
• "mutually responsive" parenting

When do children develop guilt/shame, and what are the 3 criteria? 

What is the difference betwen guilt/shame? 

Explain the 1993 study of guilt/shame. 

• Develops at age 3
• Self is recognized as independent, developed standards of behaviour, standards used to evaluate behaviour
• Guilt is characterized by confession, and making amends. Shame is characterized by hiding from judgement, and withdrawal
• Doll leg broke off. Avoiders showed shame and avoided the confederate, Amenders showed guilt, repaired doll and told confederate.