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| When did psychology begin? |
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| - The scientific study of mind and behavior |
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| - Our private inner experience, made up of our perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feelings. |
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| - Certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn |
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| - All knowledge is acquired through experience |
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| - How mental activity can be reconciled and coordinated with physical behavior |
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- French physician, thought the brain and mind are linked.
Developed phrenology. |
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| - Specific mental abilities and characteristics are localized in specific regions of the brain. The size of bumps or indentions on the skull reflected the size of the brain regions beneath them. By feeling the bumps you could tell whether a person is friendly, cautious, assertive, etc. |
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| - The small part of the left side of the brain, controls speech. |
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- Surgeon, worked with a patient who had suffered brain damage. The patient was unable to speak, but understood everything that was said to him.
Damage to a specific part of the brain impaired a specific mental function, demonstrating that the brain and mind are closely linked. |
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| - Measured patients’ reaction time to a stimulus applied to different parts of the leg |
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| - The analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind. This approach involves breaking the conscience down into elemental sensations and feelings. |
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| - The subjective observation of one’s own experience |
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- Wrote The Principles of Psychology
Reasoned that mental abilities evolved because they were adaptive- helped people solve problems and increased their chances for survival.
Functionalism |
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Focused on scientifically analyzing consciousness, a person’s subjective experience of the world.
Structuralism
Introspection |
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| - The study of the purposes mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment. |
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| - The features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations. |
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| - Help people solve problem and increase their chance for survival |
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- examines the structure of mental processes served.
- sets out to understand the functions those mental processes serve |
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Structuralism
Functionalism |
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| - Errors of perception, memory, or judgment in which subjective experience differs from objective reality. |
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- Light flashing through a canvas to create the illusion of movement
Gestalt |
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| - A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts. |
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| - A temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences. |
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- French Physicians
Worked with hysterical patients
Suggested that the brain can create many conscience selves |
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| Jean-Marie Charcot and Pierre Jane |
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| - The part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings and actions. |
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| - Freud’s approach to understanding human behavior by emphasizing the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thought, and behaviors. |
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| - An approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings. Focuses on the high aspirations that people have for themselves. |
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- The scientific study of objectively observable behavior.
What people do rather than what they experience. |
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| - Sensory input from the environment |
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| - An action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus |
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| - The consequence of a behavior determines whether it will be more or less likely to occur again. |
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- Reinforcement
Hungry rats, food lever
Behaviorism |
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| - The box has a lever and a food tray, and a hungry rat could get food delivered to the tray by pressing the lever. |
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- studied the perceptual and cognitive errors of children
Clay experiment |
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- The scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning.
Brought about by the emergence of the computer. |
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| - Made it possible for psychologists to watch what happens inside a human brain. |
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| - Trained rats to run mazes, surgically removed parts of their brains, and then measured how well they could run the maze again. |
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| - A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity. |
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- Explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities that are preserved over time by natural selection.
Darwin’s theory of natural selection |
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Proposed that we often remember what should happen rather than what actually did happen. Our attempts to recall the past are influenced by knowledge beliefs, hopes, aspirations and desires.
Behaviorists |
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- Attacked Skinners conclusions on verbal language
Animals do not understand "language"
Humans understand syntax and grammar |
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| - a subfield of psychology that studies the causes and consequences of interpersonal behavior |
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| - The study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members |
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| - the best way to understand illness is to develop theories about the bodies function. |
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| - Originally a Greek school of medicine that stressed the importance of observation, and now generally used to describe any attempts to acquire knowledge by observing objects or events. |
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| Why are people difficult to study- |
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Complexity
Variability
Reactivity- People often think, feel, and act one way when they are being observed and a different way when they are not. |
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| - People often think, feel, and act one way when they are being observed and a different way when they are not. |
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Unstable
Is not able to tell us about many of the properties in which we might be interested in. |
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| - A testable prediction made by a theory |
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| When measuring variables in an experiment, look for- |
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- The characteristic of an observation that allows one to draw accurate inferences from it.
Aka a ruler can not measure happiness |
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| - The tendency for a measure to produce the same results whenever it is used to measure the same thing. |
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| - The tendency for a measure to produce different results when it is used to measure different things. |
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| - Those aspects of a setting that cause people to behave as they think an observer wants or expects them to behave. |
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| - An observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the participant. |
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| - the value of one is systematically related to the value of the other |
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| - The variable that is manipulated |
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| - The variable that is measured |
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| - a technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in that sample. |
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- Property of an experiment in which variables have been operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way.
Ex: Gentlemen prefer blondes, define gentlemen |
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| - a series of answers to a questionnaire that asks people to indicate the extent to which sets of statements or adjectives accurately describe their own behavior of mental state. |
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| - a well researched clinical questionnaire used to access personality and psychological problems. |
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| - A projective personality test in which respondents reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people. |
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| - A projective personality test in which individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify a respondent’s inner feelings and interpret his or her personality structure. |
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| - sorts traits into a small number of underlying dimensions. |
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- Extroverts vs. Introverts
Stable vs. Emotional
Speculated that individual differences in levels of cortical arousal might underlie differences between extraverts and introverts. |
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- Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness to experience
Extroversion |
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| Genetics influence most personality traits, ranging from - to - percent. |
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| - The part of the mind containing the drives present at birth. It is the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressive drives. |
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| - The component of personality, developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life’s practical demands. |
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| - The mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority. |
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| - Unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by treats from unacceptable impulses. |
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| - A reasonable sounding explanation for unacceptable feelings |
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| - Attributing one’s own threatening feelings, motives, or impulses to another person |
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| - Reverting to immature behavior |
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| - Shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to a neutral or less threatening source (Slamming a door) |
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| - Take on the characteristics of another person who seems more powerful or better able to cope |
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| - Channel unacceptable drives into socially acceptable behaviors. |
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| - A model of essential human needs arranged according to their priority. |
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| Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs |
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| - regards personality as governed by an individual’s ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death. |
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| - The question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors. |
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| Person-situation controversy |
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| - An approach that views personality in terms of how the person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them. |
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| Social Cognitive Approach |
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| - Believe that they control their own destiny. |
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| Internal locus of control |
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| - Believe that outcomes are random, determined by luck, or controlled by other people. |
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| External locus of control |
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| - Behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future. |
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| - A positive of negative evaluation of another person based on his or her group membership |
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| - Positive or negative behavior toward another person based on his or her group membership |
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| - Immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values. |
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| - Individuals feel diminished responsibility for their actions because they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way. |
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| Diffusion of responsibility |
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| - The tendency for a groups initial learning to get stronger over time. |
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| – The hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long as they perceive a favorable ratio of costs to benefits. |
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| Social exchange traditional |
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| - Requires Equity- state of affairs in which the cost- benefit ratios of two partners are roughly equally. |
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| - The control of one person’s behavior by another |
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| List the 3 types of social influence |
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Hedonic motive
Approval motive
Accuracy motive |
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| List the 3 types of social influence |
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Hedonic motive
Approval motive
Accuracy motive |
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| - A desire to experience pleasure and avoid pain |
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| - A desire to be accepted and to avoid being rejected |
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| - A desire to believe what is true and to avoid believing what is false |
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| - the process of learning by observing others being rewarded and punished (Jail) |
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| - Customary standards for behavior that are widely shared by members of a culture. |
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| - The unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefited them |
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| - a strategy that uses reciprocating concessions to influence behavior |
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| Door-in-the-face technique |
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| - the tendency to do what others do simply because others are doing it |
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| - The tendency to do what authorities tell us to do simply because they tell us to do it. |
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| - A phenomenon whereby a person’s behavior is influenced by another person’s behavior because the latter provides information about what is good or true |
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| - A change in attitude or beliefs that is brought about by appeals to reason. |
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| - A change in attitudes or beliefs that is brought about by appeals to habit or emotion. |
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| - An unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes or beliefs. |
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- A strategy that uses a person’s desire for consistency to influence that person’s behavior
Drive Carefully |
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| Foot-in-the-door technique |
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| - The process by which people draw inferences about others based on their knowledge of the categories to which they belong. |
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| - A phenomenon the occurs when observers perceive what they expect to perceive |
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| - A phenomenon whereby observers bring about what they expect to perceive |
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| - Fear of confirming an observer’s stereotype. |
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| - The process of creating a modification to a stereotype, rather than abandoning it all together, when confronted with evidence that clearly disconfirms that stereotype evidence. |
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| - The tendency to make situational attributes for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributes for the identical behavior of others |
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| - The tendency to make a dispositional attribute even when a person’s behavior was caused by the situation. |
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| Festinger & Carlsmith’s experiment- |
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| Cognitive dissonance - $1 “enjoyed” the experiment more |
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