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the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Psyche- from the Greek for soul, spirit, or life…
Ology- a branch of knowledge |
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(469-399 B.C.) used dialogue as a means to investigate and know the self.
--Socratic method--- questioning that allowed the student to come to his own awareness of an answer…. |
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(427-347 B.C.)
Disinguished between forms and sensations. Sensations- information derived from our senses Forms- the eternal structures from the world around us. Known for writing The Republic- |
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| (385-322 B.C.) First philosopher that is described more as a natural scientist. Took an inductive approach to his work. He distrusted purely rational approaches |
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| d. BACON (1561-1626)- founder of modern science… England. LOCKE (1632-1704) a British philosopher.. wrote that the mind is a “white paper” or blank slate. Together, their ideas created the concept of EMPIRICISM- the view that knowledge comes from experience via the senses and that science flourishes through observation and experiment. |
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| Darwin and Natural Selection |
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a. NATURAL SELECTION states that organisms best adapted to their world are likely to survive and pass on their characteristics to offspring.
Observations came from the voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle. Most significant event- stay in the Galapagos Islands. Especially fascinated by the giant tortoises and finches.
b. Humans evolve like all living things. |
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| Structuralism- Wundt/Tichener |
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WILHELM WUNDT- the founder of psychology or the world’s first true psychologist. Had his laboratory in Leipzig (Germany). Did experiments and taught physiological psychology… but not what we mean by this today….use physical methods to study conscious process….. known for the technique of Experimentelle Selbst-beobachtung (experimental self-observation or introspection).
1. began to use systematic methods to study conscious process. (reactions times)
2. focused on sensations and the awareness of immediate experience.
EDWARD TICHENER
--- a student of Wundt’s, excluded from his psychology anything that could not be known through rigidly controlled introspection. brings Wundt’s methods to the United States, sets up his lab at Cornell in 1892.
1. attempts a systematic method to try to classify the mind’s structures.
2. Structuralism emphasized classification of the mind’s structures. |
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| Functionalism- William James |
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Known for his view that the outstanding feature of human consciousness is that it is adaptive, allows us to change and adapt to our world and adjust to our environment.
1. James proposes a shift from the focus on the contents of the mind to the functions of the mind.
2. stated that the mind is not static but evolves in response to the environment.
3. Functionalism studied the functions of the mind and behavior in adapting to the environment. |
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| 7 approaches to Psychology (Early and Contemporary) |
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EARLY APPROACHES
-THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH (Pavlov, Watson, Bandura)
-emphasizes the scientific study of behavior and environmental determinants.
-THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH (Rogers, Maslow)
-emphasizes individuals’ capacities for growth and the freedom to choose their own destiny.
-THE COGNITIVE APPROACH (Simon)
-emphasizes mental processes and views the mind as an active and aware problem solving system
CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES
-THE BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE APPROACH (Sperry)
-emphasizes the brain and the nervous system as central to understanding of behavior, thought, and emotion.
-THE EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH (Buss, Pinker)
emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction and natural selection in explaining behavior.
-THE SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH
-emphasizes that culture, ethnicity, and gender are essential to understanding behavior, thought and emotion.
Culture is the behavior patterns, beliefs, and products of a particular group of people.
Ethnicity is based on cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language.
Gender is the sociocultural dimension of being male or female. |
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| Areas of Specialization in NOTES ONLY |
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Definition
Mental Health- Clinics/University/Counseling Centers
a. Clinical/counseling psychology- most widely practiced specialization; treat and diagnose people with psychological problems. 3 to 4 years of graduate training and 1 year of internship in a mental health facility.
b. Psychiatry- branch of medicine practiced by physicians with a doctor of medicine degree- specialize in abnormal behavior and psychotherapy. Prescribing is primary distinction with psychologist.
c. Cross cultural/Multicultural psychologists examine the role of culture in understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.
d. Psychology of women/men emphasizes the importance of promoting the research and study of women/men.
Physical/Mental Health Centers/University
e. Health psychology is the multidimensional approach to health that emphasizes psychological factors, lifestyle and the nature of the health-care delivery system.
Courts/Mental Health Clinics/University
f. Forensic psychology- applies psychological concepts to the legal system. |
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| 4 steps of Scientific Method |
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Definition
1. CONCEPTUALIZE PROBLEM.
Choosing problem to study- specifically defining (operational definition) precisely the problem and how the problem will be studied in observable events that can be measured.
Operational definition: a statement of procedures used to define research variables.
2. COLLECT DATA
THEORY VS HYPOTHESIS
a. Create a hypothesis to test.
A theory is a set of ideas that help make a prediction in general about behavior.
A hypothesis is a specific assumptions or predictions that can be tested to determine accuracy.
b. Psychologists use research methods to collect data about specific problems.
3. DRAW CONCLUSIONS.
a. Collected data must be analyzed using statistical procedures. Researchers then draw conclusions based on the results.
4. REVISE RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS AND THEORY.
Replication: repeating a research study with different participants usually in different situations to see if the same or different conclusions are drawn.
a. Using conclusions from collected data, researchers compare their conclusions to those of other researchers investigating similar problems.
b. Theory revision can only occur when a number of studies produce similar results |
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| the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. |
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we tend to think that we know more than we do:
Scientific research is objective, systematic, and testable. |
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| thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions. |
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Naturalistic Observation
a. Definition: observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.
b. Examples: Case study and survey methods
Correlational Research
a. Describes the strength of the relationship between two variables.
(e. Correlation means association… not causation. )
Experimental Research:
Experiment: a research method in which the investigator manipulates one or more variables/factors to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process. By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control for other relevant factors. |
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| - researcher studies one person in depth |
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| - researcher studies behaviors of a group of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them. |
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| - the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. |
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| -all the cases of a group |
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| Correlation vs Experiment: Difference? |
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e. Correlation means association… not causation.
i. EXPERIMENTS REQUIRE DIFFERENT GROUPS.
i. Experimental group- the group whose experience is being manipulated.
ii. Control group- group that is the comparison- all variables are held constant and no manipulation occurs. |
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| perception of a correlation where none exists. |
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| Experimental /control group |
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| a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. |
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| assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance to decrease the probability that the experimental and control group will differ on preexisting uncontrolled variables |
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| a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. |
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| a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion |
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occurs when the investigator’s own expectations influence the outcome. This can be controlled with a double blind study.
Double-blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which both the research participant and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or not. |
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occurs when the participants’s beliefs about how they are expected to behave influences the outcome. It results in what is known as the placebo effect. It can be controlled with a placebo control group.
discuss the importance of ethical and value considerations in psychological research |
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Mean/median/mode
(Measures of Central Tendency) |
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Mean- arithmetic average of a distribution. Add the scores and divide by the number of scores.
Median- 50th percentile… or middle score. Half the scores are above it and half below it.
Mode- most frequently occurring score. |
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Range/Standard deviation
(Measures of Variation) |
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Range- the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation- a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. It better tells whether scores are tightly packed together or spread far apart. |
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