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Psychology GRE
Flashcards for GRE
288
Psychology
Graduate
07/06/2009

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Term
Noam Chomsky
Definition
principle investigator of the study of syntax/"transformational grammar"
Term
Countertransference
Definition
used by Freud to mean emotional reactions to a patient that are determined not by the patient's own personality traits and disorders, but rather the psychoanalyst's own unconscious conflict.
Term
light sensitivity: rods vs. cones
Definition
rods (on outside) are more sensitive to light than cones (in center)
Term
Paul Ekman
Definition
argues for 6 basic emotions based on universal identifiability
Term
6 basic emotions
Definition
happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust
Term
Freud's psychosexual stages
Definition

1. oral

2. anal

3. phallic

4. latency (6 yrs. - puberty)

5. genital (puberty-adult)

Term
R or L: perception of complex geometric patterns
Definition
right!
Term
ascending system of reticular formation
Definition
responsible for sleep and waking
Term
to ablate
Definition
to remove (i.e. part of the brain with a vacuum or scalpel)
Term
to transect
Definition
to cut to relevant pathways in order to isolate part of the brain
Term
intracranial recording
Definition
the recording of brain activity by monitoring chemical or electrical activity from inside the skull
Term
cannula
Definition
a tiny tube used to inject or withdraw small quantities of brain chemicals
Term
CT scan
Definition
computerized tomography - creates a composite x-ray pic based on views from different angles
Term
electroenchephalogram
Definition
EEg - a record of the summed activity of cortical cells picked up by wires placed on the skull
Term
eidetic memory
Definition
basically photographic memory
Term
MRI
Definition
passes a high frequency alternating magnetic field through the brain to detet the different resonant frequencies of its nuclei
Term
ganglion
Definition
a group of neurons clumped together
Term
hindbrain components
Definition
medulla, pons, cerebellum
Term
medulla
Definition
part of the hindbrain and the rearmost portion of the brain, just adjacent to the spinal cord. Involved in the control of respiration, circulation, balance, and protective reflexes such as coughing and sneezing
Term
pons
Definition
the topmost portion of the hindbrain just above the medulla and in front of the cerebellum; involved in coordinating facial sensations and muscular actions, and in regulating sleep and arousal
Term
cerebellum
Definition
two small hemispheres that form part of the hindbrain and control muscular coordination and balance - think cauliflower
Term
low-decerebrate animal
Definition
created by transecting the brain at a point just above the hindbrain, thus leaving only the hindbrain and spinal cord in primary control; can make the movements but can't put them together
Term
high-decerebrate animal
Definition
created by transecting brain just above the midbrain, so that it's got mid, hind, and spinal cord going for it; it acts, but without point or pupose
Term
midbrain
Definition
involved in arousal, the sleep-waking cycle, and auditory and visual targeting
Term
longitudinal fissure
Definition
clevege between right and left hemispheres
Term
Huntington's disease
Definition
A progressive hereditory disorder that involves degeneration of th ebasal ganglia and that results in jerky limb movements, facial twitches, and uncontrolled writhing of the body
Term
hypothalamus
Definition
A small structure at he base of the forebrain that plays a vital role in the control of the autonomic nervous system, of the endocrine system, and of the major biological drives
Term
thalamus
Definition
a part of the lower portion of the forebrain that serves as a major relay and integration center for sensory information
Term
basal ganglia
Definition
in the extrapyramidal motor system, a set of subcortical structure in the cerebrum that send messages to the spinal cord through the midbrain to modulate various motor functions
Term
extrapyramidal system
Definition
one of the two cerebral motor control systems; it is older in evolutionary terms, and it controls relatively gross movements of the hear, limbs, and trunk
Term
limbic system
Definition
a set of brain structures including the amygdala, hippocampus, cortex, and parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus. believed to be involved in the control of emotional behavior and motivation
Term
cranial nerves
Definition
the twelve pairs of nerves that enter and exit directly from the hindbrain; control movements of the head and neck, carry sensations from them including vision, olfaction, and audition, and regulate the various glandular secretions in the head
Term
central fissure
Definition
groove separating frontal and parietal lobes
Term
lateral fissure
Definition
groove separating temporal lobe from both the frontal and parietal lobes
Term
contralateral control
Definition
the pattern in which movements on the right side of the body are controlled by the left half of the brain, and vice-versa.
Term
primary projection areas
Definition
regions of the cortex that serve as receiving stations for sensory information or as dispatching stations for motor commands
Term
primary motor projection area location
Definition
strip of cortex located at the back of the frontal lobe just ahead of the primary sensory projection area in the parietal lobe
Term
primary somatosensory projection area location
Definition
strip of cortex located at the front of the parietal lobe just behind the primary motor area in the frontal lobe
Term
apraxia
Definition
a serious disturbance in the initiation or organization of voluntary action, caused by brain lesion(s)
Term
agnosias
Definition
disorders in which the sufferer cannot identify familiar objects using the affected sensory modality (i.e. visual, or whatever)
Term
prosopagnosia
Definition
type of agnosia involving both the temporal and parietal lobes in which the sufferer cannot recognize faces (mainly)
Term
neglect syndrome
Definition
the result of certain lesions of the right parietal love that leave a patient inattentive to stimuli to her left and result in her ignoring the left side of her body
Term
Gerstmann Syndrome
Definition
Caused by damage to left parietal lobe, involves a cluster of difficulties, including the inability to form mathematical calculations, the loss of handwriting, and confusion about L v. R
Term
aphasias
Definition
disorders of speech resulting from certain lesions in the cortical nonprimary areas
Term
Broca's area
Definition
a brain area in the frontal lobe crucial for language production, the damage of which can lead to non-fluent aphasias
Term
speech plans
Definition
coordinated patterns of speech movements, constructed in Broca's area, that are relayed to the primary motor projection area for decoding into discrete muscular movements
Term
Wernicke's area
Definition
A brain area adjacent to the auditory projection area, damage to which leads to deficits in understanding word meaning (fluent aphasia)
Term
prefrontal damage: common effects
Definition
lack of spontaneity, few facial expressions and gestures, speak little, poor strategy formation, bad at following rules, deficiency in response inhibition
Term
lateralization
Definition
asymmetry of function between the two hemispheres
Term
left hemisphere specialities
Definition
language
Term
right hemisphere specialities
Definition
space and form, music perception, overall pattern of tasks (as opposed to details)
Term
corpus callosum
Definition
a bundle of fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres, allowing for communication/collaboration
Term
central pattern generators
Definition
circuits in the nervous system that orchestrate lower level reflexes and other neural activities into larger, organized acts. CPGs instigate certain crucial basic actions, such as chewing, breathing, locomotion, etc.
Term
disinhibition
Definition
an increase of some reaction tendency by the removal of some inhibiting influence upon it (e.g. the increased strength of a frog's spinal reflexes after decapitation)
Term
motoneurons
Definition
neurons whose cell bodies are in the brain or spinal cord and whose axons terminate on muscle fibers
Term
sensory neurons
Definition
neurons that convey information from sense organs to other portions the nervous system
Term
glial cells
Definition
cells in the brain that act as guidewires for growing neurons, provide a supportive scaffolding for mature neurons, and form the myelin sheath and blood-brain barrier
Term
white vs. gray matter
Definition
white matter = myelinated; gray matter = not
Term
oscilloscope
Definition
an electronic monitoring device that uses a cathode ray tube (CRT) to display signals such as electrocardiograph signals or action potentials
Term
resting potential
Definition
-70 mV
Term
neuron's excitation threshold
Definition
about -55 mV
Term
action potential
Definition
destabilization-restabilization sequence that happens at +40 mV
Term
multiple sclerosis
Definition
disease in which the myelin of neurons is attacked. Can include blindness, numbness, and paralysis
Term
Sir Charles Sherrington
Definition
discovered the synapse by stimulating specifics points on dogs whose spinal cord was separated from higher areas
Term
temporal summation
Definition
the process whereby a stimulus that is below threshold will elicit a reflex if the stimulus occurs repeatedly
Term
spatial summation
Definition
the process whereby two or more stimuli that are individually below threshold will elicit a reflex if they occur simultaneously at different points on the body
Term
acetylcholine
Definition
makes muscle fibers contract by releasing at neuromuscular junction (among other things)
Term
serotonin
Definition
involved in many of the mechanisms of sleep, mood, and arousal (among other things)
Term
glutamate
Definition
critical in the retina of the eye and appears to be important for long-term memory as well as for the perception of pain
Term
GABA
Definition
the most widely distributed inhibitory transmitter of the CNS
Term
lock-and-key model
Definition
the theory that neurotransmitter molecules will only affect the postsynaptic membrane if their shape fits into that of certain receptor molecules (overly simplified)
Term
second messengers
Definition
neurochemicals within the neuron that regulate such mechanisms as the creation of receptor sites for specific neurotransmitters and the synthesis of the neuron's own neurotransmitter, thus determining the neuron's overall responsiveness
Term
agonists
Definition
drugs that enhance a neurotransmitter's activity
Term
antagonists
Definition
drugs that impede a neurotransmitter's activity
Term
how amphetamines work
Definition
norepinephrine agonist
Term
schizophrenia
Definition
probably caused by an oversensitivity to dopamine. can involve delusions, hallucinations, and bizarre mannerisms/gestures
Term
blood-brain barrier
Definition
specialized membranes that surround the blood vessels within the brain and that filter toxins and other harmful chemicals, ensuring brain cells' a relatively pure blood supply
Term
a NT that's also a hormone
Definition
norepinephrine
Term
anomia
Definition
slight difficulty in finding words that may persist after most of the effects of a stroke have faded away (i.e.)
Term
collateral sprouts
Definition
new branches grown on axons next to damaged neurons, allowing for some recovery of function
Term
nerve growth factors
Definition
neurochemicals that promote the sprouting of new neuronal connections
Term
vasopressin
Definition
AKA anti-diuretic hormone. Manufactured in the hypothalamus and secreted by the pituitary, elevates blood pressure by producing vasoconstriction and instructs the kidneys to conserve water instead of excreting it.
Term
angiotensin II
Definition
a substance produced by the kidneys when there is a decrease in the amt. of liquid passing through them, activation receptors in the brain that monitor the volume of blood and other fluids in the body
Term
osmoreceptors
Definition
intracellular receptors that monitor amt. of water within the cells
Term
CCK
Definition
hormone released by the duodendum that appears to send a 'stop eating' message to the brain
Term
leptin
Definition
hormone released by adipose cells to control eating
Term
aphagia
Definition
refusal to eat (and sometimes drink) brought about by a lateral lesion in the hypothalamus
Term
hyperphagia
Definition
overeating brought on by lesion to the ventralmedial region of the hypothalamus
Term
reinforced trials
Definition
in classical conditioning, trails in which US is presented with (or immediately after) CS
Term
unreinforced trials
Definition
in classical conditioning, trials in which CS is presented without the US
Term
3 ways that one can measure the strength of the CR
Definition
1. response amplitude
2. probability of response
3. response latency
Term
second-order conditioning
Definition
in classical conditioning, conditioning where CS is used to condition new CS
Term
extinction
Definition
term used to describe what happened when CS is repeatedly presented without US to the point that CR becomes unlearned
Term
reconditioning
Definition
conditioning after extinction-- faster than original
Term
generalization gradient
Definition
in classical conditioning, the pattern that shows how, in general, the greater the difference between a new stimulus and the original CS, the weaker the CR
Term
response suppression
Definition
the inhibition of a response conditioned by fear
Term
conditioned emotional response
Definition
a technique in which a conditioned stimulus evokes fear, which in turn suppresses whatever other activities the animal is currently engaged in. For example, a rat will no longer press a lever for a food reward after several trials involving a light or tone that precedes an electrical shock.
Term
instrumental conditioning
Definition
(aka operant conditioning) a form of learning in which a reinforcer (e.g. food) is given only if the animal performs the instrumental response (e.g. pressing a lever). In effect, what has to be learned is the relationship between the response and the reinforcer.
Term
Edward Thorndike
Definition
studied cats in puzzles boxes as example of instrumental conditioning
Term
law of effect
Definition
by thorndike. basically that the strength of a response is determined by its consequences (in instrumental conditioning)
Term
discriminative stimuli
Definition
in instrumental conditioning, the external stimuli that signal a particular relationship between the instrumental response and the reinforcer. For example, a green light is a positive discriminative stimulus when it signals to a pigeon that it will get food if it hops on a treadle; the reverse is true of a red light, or the negative discriminative stimulus, which indicates that this action will not lead to a food reward.
Term
conditioned reinforcer
Definition
an initially neutral stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties through pairing with another stimulus that is already reinforcing.
Term
shaping
Definition
an instrumental learning procedure in which an animal (or human) learns a rather difficult response through the reinforcement of successive approximations to that response.
Term
successive approximations
Definition
the process of shaping a response by rewarding the steps that go toward the behavioral goal.
Term
behavioral context
Definition
a pattern of responding in which an organism seems to evaluate a reward relative to other rewards that are available or that have been available recently. For example, an animal might respond only weakly to a reward of two pellets if it recently received a reward of five pellets.
Term
intrinsic motivation
Definition
motivation that seems inherent in an activity itself, as when we engage in an activity for its own sake or merely because it is fun.
Term
partial reinforcement
Definition
reinforcement schedule in which reward is presented only some of the time
Term
FR 3
Definition
a fixed ratio schedule in which the participant must produce 3 responses in order to receive each reward.
Term
VR 10
Definition
in instrumental conditioning, a variable ratio schedule in which reinforcement comes after an average of 10 responses
Term
FI 12 min.
Definition
fixed interval schedule-- next response after 12 min. elapsed is rewarded
Term
partial-reinforcement effect
Definition
the fact that response is much harder to extinguish if it was acquired during partial rather than continuous reinforcement
Term
escape learning
Definition
instrumental learning in which the reinforcement consists of the reduction or cessation of an aversive stimulus
Term
avoidance learning
Definition
instrumental learning in which the response averts an aversive stimulus before it occurs
Term
blocking effect
Definition
an effect produced when two conditioned stimuli, A and B, are both presented together with the unconditioned stimulus (US). If stimulus A has previously been associated with the unconditioned stimulus while B has not, the formation of an association between stimulus B and the US will be impaired (blocked).
Term
act-outcome representation (and who)
Definition
a type of association hypothesized by Edward Tolman to be the prodcut of instrumental learning; an organism that has acquired this sort of associatin has acquired the knowledge that a certain type of act leads to a particular consequence
Term
Leon Kamin
Definition
discovered the blocking effect
Term
latent learning
Definition
learning that occurs without being manifested by performance (i.e. knowledge of a maze that is not manifested until there is a reward)
Term
learned helplessness
Definition
an acquired sense that one can no longer control one's environment, with the sad consequence that one gives up trying
Term
equipotentiality principle
Definition
the claim (contradicted by much evidence) that organisms can learn to associate any response with any reward or to associate any pair of stimuli
Term
belongingness in learning
Definition
the fact that the ease with which associations are formed depends upon the items to be associated. This holds for classical conditioning in which some CS-US combinations are more effective than others (e.g., learned taste aversions) and for instrumental conditioning in which some response-reinforcer combinations are more effective than others (e.g., learned taste aversions) and for instrumental conditioning in which some response-reinforcer combinations work more easily than others (e.g., specific defense reactions in avoidance conditioning of species)
Term
one-trial learning
Definition
in classical conditioning, the establishment of a CR after only one pairing of CS and US (i.e., with learned taste aversion)
Term
long-term potentiation
Definition
a form of cellular plasticity in which a postsynaptic neuron becomes more sensitive (potentiated) to the signal received from the presynaptic neuron. this potentiation is usually produced by a rapid and sustained burst of firing by the presynaptic neuron. The potentiation can then spread to other presynaptic neurons provided that they have fired in the past at the same time as the presynaptic cell that produced the potentiation in the first place.
Term
Thorndike
Definition
argues that nonhuman animals solve problems through a process guided only by trial and error (law of effect)
Term
Wolfgang Kohler
Definition
showed that some animals can behave intelligently to solve problems (i.e. chimps can use tools)
Term
transfer of training tests
Definition
procedures used to ascertain whether skills learned in one setting generalize to other settings
Term
distal stimulus
Definition
an object or event outside (e.g., a tree) as contrasted to the proximal stimulus (e.g., the retinal image of the tree), which is the pattern of physical energies that originates from the distal stimulus and impinges on a sense organ
Term
4 questions of psychophysics
Definition
detection, discrimination, scaling, recognition
Term
jnd
Definition
just noticeable difference-- the amount of change required to surpass the difference threshold
Term
Gustav Theodor Fechner
Definition
father of psychophsyics
Term
Weber's law
Definition
the observation that the size of the difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the standard stimulus
Term
Weber's fraction
Definition
In Weber's law, the fraction given by the change in stimulus intensity (∆I) divided by the standard intensity (I) required to produce a just-noticeable difference: ∆I/I = C.
Term
Fechner's Law
Definition
the assertion that the strength of a sensation (subjectively experienced) is proportional to the logarithm of physical stimulus intensity
Term
signal-detection theory
Definition
the theory that the act of perceiving or not perceiving a stimulus is actually a judgment about whether a momentary sensory experience is due to background noise alone or to the background noise plus signal
Term
zero stimulus
Definition
in signal detection theory, an ideal state in which, in some sensory domain, the participant is perceiving nothing. this state is impossible.
Term
payoff matrix
Definition
(1) in a signal detection experiment, a table that shows the costs and benefits of each of the four possible outcomes: a hit, reporting the stimulus when it is present; a correct negative; a miss; and a flase alarm
Term
sensory code
Definition
the rule by which the nervous system represents the sensory characteristics of the stimulus. One example is firing frequency which, in touch and vision, encodes increased stimulus intensity.
Term
sensory quality
Definition
a distinguishing attribute of a stimulus (e.g., sound frequency as a determinant of pitch)
Term
psychological intensity
Definition
the magnitude of a stimulus as it is perceived, not in terms of its physical attributes
Term
doctrine of specific nerve energies
Definition
the law formulated by Johannes Müller which holds that differences in sensory quality are not caused by differences in the stimuli themselves but by the different nervous structures that these stimuli excite. Thus, stimulating the retina will produce sensations of light, whether the retina is stimulated by a beam of light or pressure to the eyeball
Term
Johannes Müller
Definition
doctrine of specific nerve energies
Term
specifity theory
Definition
an approach to sensory experience which asserts that different sensory qualities are signalled by differed neurons. these neurons are somehow labeled with their quality, so that when they fire, the nervous system interprets their activation as that particular sensory quality.
Term
kinesthesis
Definition
a general term for sensory information generated by receptors in the muscles, tendons, and joints which informs us of our skeletal movement.
Term
semicircular canals
Definition
the three curved tubules found within the inner ear that contain a viscous fluid that is easily perturbed if jostled. The canals provide moment-to-moment information about head movements.
Term
vestibular senses
Definition
a set of receptors that provide information about the orientation and movements of the head, located in the semicircular canals and the vestibular sacs of the inner ear.
Term
skin sensations (4 main, 3 others)
Definition
pressure, warmth, cold, pain. vibration, tickle, itch.
Term
sensory interaction
Definition
the increased or decreased sensitivity of the sensory system in response to other ongoing stimuli
Term
adaptation
Definition
the process by which a sensitivity to a particular stimulus declines when it is continually presented
Term
vomeronasal organ
Definition
a distinct set of receptor cells in the nose that are specialized for the detection of pheromones
Term
decibels
Definition
the logarithmic units used to describe sound intensity (or amplitude)
Term
range of human audition (in Hz)
Definition
20 - 20,000 Hz (cycles/second)
Term
cochlea
Definition
a coiled structure in the inner ear that contains the basilar membrane whose deformation by sound-produced pressure stimulates the auditory receptors.
Term
outer ear
Definition
the portion of the structures of the ear that includes that earflap, the auditory canal, and the outer surface of the eardrum
Term
eardrum
Definition
the taut membrane that transmits vibrations caused by soundwaves across the middle ear to the inner ear
Term
auditory canal
Definition
the tube that carries sound from the outer ear to the eardrum
Term
oval window
Definition
the membrane separating the middle ear from the inner ear
Term
middle ear
Definition
the antechamber to the inner ear which amplifies the sound-produced vibrations of the eardrum and transfers them to the cochlea.
Term
inner ear
Definition
the portion of the ear in which the actual transduction of sound takes place
Term
auditory ossicles
Definition
the three small bones in the structures of the ear that includes the earflap, the auditory canal, and the outer surface of the eardrum
Term
hair cells
Definition
the auditory receptors in the cochlea, lodged between the basilar membrane and other membranes above.
Term
Hermann von Helmholtz
Definition
proposed place theory of pitch
Term
place theory
Definition
a theory of pitch which states that different regions of the basilar membrane in the cochlea respond to different sound frequencies. the nervous system interprets the excitation from different basilar regions as different pitches
Term
light intensity
Definition
amount of radiant energy per unit time. major determinant of perceived brightness
Term
light wavelength
Definition
the distance between the crests of two successive waves; the major determinant of perceived color
Term
visible spectrum
Definition
(light) ~360(violet)-750(red)nm
Term
UV and infrared
Definition
UV = invisible, shorter wavelengths; infrared = invisible but can be felt as heat, longer wavelengths
Term
photoreceptors
Definition
cells in the retina responsible for the detection of light
Term
retina
Definition
the tissue-thin structure at the back of the interior of the eye that contains the photoreceptors, several layers of intermediate neurons, and the cell bodies of the axons that form the optic nerve.
Term
lens
Definition
the portion of the eye that bends light rays and thus can focus an image on the retina
Term
cornea
Definition
the eye's transparent outer coating
Term
accommodation (vision)
Definition
the process by which the lens is thickened or flattened to focus on an object (near or far, respectively)
Term
iris
Definition
the smooth circular muscle in the eye that surrounds the pupil and contracts or dilates under reflex control in order to govern the amount of light entering
Term
cones
Definition
visual receptors that respond to greater light intensities and give rise to chromatic (color) sensations; concentrated in the center of the retina; less plentiful than cones
Term
fovea
Definition
the area of the retina in which the image falls if the viewer is looking directly at the source of the image. acuity is greater when the image falls here than on any other part of the retina. cones concentrated here.
Term
rods
Definition
photoreceptors in the retina that respond to lower light intensities and give rise the achromatic (colorless) sensations
Term
bipolar cells
Definition
the intermediate neural cells in the eye that are stimulated by the receptors and excite the ganglion cells
Term
ganglion cells
Definition
in the retina, one of the intermediate links between the receptor cells and the brain. the axons of the ganglion cells converge into a bundle of fibers that leave the eyeball as the optic nerve
Term
lateral geniculate nucleus
Definition
a region of the hypothalamus which is sometimes said to be the "hunger center" and to be in an antagonistic relationship to a supposed "satiety center," the ventromedial region of the hypothalamus; also a way station for neural impulses traveling from the retina to the brain
Term
optic nerve
Definition
the bundle of fibers that proceeds from each eyeball to the brain, made up of axons whose cell bodies are retinal ganglion cells
Term
rhodopsin
Definition
the visual pigment inside rods
Term
visual pigments
Definition
light-sensitive chemicals within the rods and cones of the eye; light energies cause to change chemical structures
Term
stabilized image technique
Definition
a procedure that projects a stationary image on the retina even though the eye is moving
Term
brightness contrast
Definition
the perceiver's tendency to exaggerate the physical difference in the light intensities of two adjacent regions. As a result, a gray patch looks brighter on a black background, darker on a a white background
Term
Mach bands
Definition
the accentuated edges between two adjacent regions that differ in brightness
Term
lateral inhibition
Definition
the tendency of adjacent neural elements of the visual system to inhibit each other; it underlies brightness contrast and the accentuation of contours
Term
unique blue
Definition
~465 nm
Term
unique green
Definition
500 nm
Term
unique yellow
Definition
570 nm
Term
dimensions of color
Definition
hue, brightness, saturation
Term
saturation
Definition
the measure of how much gray, black, or white is mixed in the the color (the more, the more saturated)
Term
color circle
Definition
shows range of colors by hue
Term
color disk
Definition
shows range of colors by hue and saturation
Term
color solid
Definition
shows range of colors by all three dimensions
Term
additive color mixture
Definition
mixing colors by stimulating the eye with two or more sets of wavelengths simultaneously (e.g. by focusing filtered light from two projectors on the same spot)
Term
subtractive color mixture
Definition
color that results from the subtraction of one set of wavelengths from another set, commonly produced when mixing color pigments or superimposing two colored filters
Term
Young-Helmholtz theory
Definition
a theory of color vision which holds that each of the three receptor types (short-wave, medium-wave, and long-wave) gives rise to the experience of one basic color (blue, green, or red)
Term
complementary colors
Definition
two colors, opposites on the color wheel, that mix (additively) to produce gray
Term
simultaneous color contrast
Definition
the effect produced by the fact that any region in the visual field tends to induce its complementary color in adjoining areas. For example, a gray patch will tend to look bluish if surrounded by yellow, and yellowish if surrounded by blue
Term
opponent-process theory of color vision
Definition
a theory of color vision that proposes three pairs of color antagonists: red-green, blue-yellow, and white-black. Excitation of one member of a pair automatically inhibits the other member
Term
receptive field
Definition
in vision, the region of a particular shape, size and location within the visual field to which a particular cell responds
Term
feature detectors
Definition
neurons in the retina or brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as movement, orientation, and so on
Term
analogical representation
Definition
a representation that shares some of the physical characteristics of an object; for example, a picture of a mouse is an analogical representation because it looks like the small rodent it represents
Term
symbolic representation
Definition
a type of mental representation that does not correspond to the physical characteristics of that which it represents. Thus, the would "mouse" does not resemble the small rodent it represents
Term
depth cues
Definition
features of the stimulus situation that indicate how far an object is from the observer or from other objects in the world
Term
binocular disparity
Definition
an important cue for depth perception. Each eye obtains a diferent view of an object, the disparity becoming less pronounced the farther the object is from the observer
Term
interposition
Definition
a monocular depth cue in which objects that are further away are blocked from view by an other opaque object obstructing their path to the eye
Term
pictorial cues
Definition
the monocular depth cues (such as interposition, linear perspective, and relative size) that the eye exploits as an optical consequence of the projection of a three-dimensional world onto a flat surface
Term
relative size
Definition
a monocular depth cue in which far-off objects produce a smaller retinal image than nearby objects of the same size
Term
texture gradient
Definition
a distance cue based on changes in surface texture that depend on how far away the observer is
Term
motion parallax
Definition
a depth cue provided by the fact that, as the observer moves, the images cast by nearby objects move more rapidly on the retina than the images cast by far away objects
Term
optic flow
Definition
the object wherein an object's retinal image enlarges as we approach the object and shrinks as we retreat from it. It is used as a depth cue by the visual system
Term
motion detectors
Definition
cells in the visual cortex that are sensitive to an image moving across the retina. they are direction specific (so one type is sensitive to R-->L and one the reverse, etc.)
Term
apparent movement
Definition
the perception of movement produced by stimuli that are stationary but flash on and off at appropriate time intervals
Term
correspondence problem
Definition
in a moving display, the difficulty in determining which aspects of the display now visible correspond to which aspects of the display visible a moment ago
Term
induced motion
Definition
perceived movement of an objectively stationary stimulus that is enclosed by a moving framework
Term
Gestalt psychology
Definition
A theoretical approach that emphasizes the role of organized wholes (Gestalten) in perception and other psychological processes
Term
information processing
Definition
a general term for the presumed operations whereby the crude raw materials provided by our senses are refashioned into items of knowledge. among these operations are perceptual organization, comparison with items stored in memory, and so on.
Term
primitive features
Definition
attributes of an object (such as its location, contour, color and shape) that are first detected separately and then coordinated to enable identification of an object.
Term
Anne Treisman
Definition
researched perception of primitive features, illusory conjunctions, etc.
Term
visual search task
Definition
a test in which research participants are briefly presented a display and must indicate whether a certain target is present or absent
Term
illusory conjunction
Definition
a pattern of errors found, for example, in visual search tasks in which observers correctly perceive the features present (redness, greenness, roundness, angularity) but misperceive how these were combined in the display (so they might see a green O and a red X when in fact a green X and a red O were presented)
Term
visual segregation
Definition
perceptual parsing
Term
perceptual parsing
Definition
the process of grouping various visual elements of a scene together, deciding which elements go together and which do not
Term
figure-ground organization
Definition
the segregation of the visual field into a part (figure) that stands out from the rest (ground)
Term
reversible figures
Definition
visual patterns that allow parsing such that what is initially figure becomes ground and vice versa (e.g. faces/vase)
Term
Max Wertheimer
Definition
the founder of Gestalt psychology; laws of perceptual organization
Term
laws of perceptual organization
Definition
Max Wertheimer's formulation describing our predisposition to group stimuli based on their proximity, similarity, and good continuation
Term
proximity (in perception)
Definition
the closeness of two figures. the closer they are, the more they will tend to be grouped together perceptually.
Term
similarity
Definition
in perception, a principle by which we tend to group like figures, especially by color and orientation
Term
good continuation
Definition
a factor in visual grouping. contours tend to be seen in such a way that their direction is altered as little as possible.
Term
subjective contours
Definition
perceived contours that do not exist physically. we tend to complete figures that have gaps in them by perceiving a contour as continuing along its original path.
Term
principle of maximum likelihood
Definition
the assertion that we interpret the proximal stimulus pattern as that external stimulus object that most probably produced it
Term
pattern recognition
Definition
the process by which the perceptual system matches the form of a figure against the figure as represented in memory
Term
bottom-up processes
Definition
processes in form recognition which start with smaller component parts and gradually build up to the larger units (e.g. from letters to words to phrases). data-driven.
Term
top-down processes
Definition
processes in form recognition that begin with larger units and then proceed to smaller units (e.g. from phrases to words to letters). One demonstration is provided by context effects in which knowledge or expectations affect what one sees. knowledge-driven.
Term
feature net
Definition
a model of pattern recognition in which there is a network of detectors, with feature detectors at the bottom.
Term
priming effect
Definition
phenomenon wherein giving a participant advanced knowledge about or exposure to a stimulus can increase the ease of its subsequent recall or recognition.
Term
Irving Bierderman
Definition
see geons
Term
geons
Definition
primitive geometric figures, such as cubes, cylinders, and pyramids, from which all other shapes are created through combination. In many models of pattern recognition, the organism must first determine which geons are present, and then determine what the objects are.
Term
impossible giure
Definition
a figure that appears acceptable when looked at locally but poses unresolvable visual contradictions when looked at as a whole
Term
magno cells
Definition
ganglion cells found largely in the periphery of the retina that, because of their sensitivity to brightness changes, are particularly suited to the perceptin of motion and depth
Term
parvo cells
Definition
ganglion cells found throughout the retina that, because of their sensitivity to differences in hue, are particularly suited to the perception of color and form
Term
simple cells
Definition
neurons in the visual cortex that respond to simple stimulus features such as orientation or position
Term
complex cells
Definition
a type of cell in the visual cortex that is sensitive to an input's orientation and so fires at its maximal rate only if the input is tilted appropriately. These cells are often sensitive to the direction of the movement of a target.
Term
"what" system
Definition
the system of visual circuits and pathways leaving from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe, especially involved in object identification.
Term
"where" system
Definition
the system of visual circuits and pathways leading from the visual cortex to the parietal lobe, especially involved in the spatial localization of objects and the coordination of movement.
Term
binding problem
Definition
the problem confronted by the brain, of recombining the various elements of a stimulus, once these elements have been separately analyzed by different neural systems.
Term
cocktail-party effect
Definition
the effect one experiences in noisy settings such as parties, where one tunes in to the voice of the person one is talking to and filters out the other voices as background noise. This phenomenon is often taken as the model for studying selective attention based on listening to a speech.
Term
dichotic presentation
Definition
an experimental procedure in which the participant hears two simultaneous messages, one presented in each ear. Typically, one of these is to be attended to and the other ignored.
Term
shadowing
Definition
the procedure, often used in dichotic presentations, in which a participant is asked to repeat aloud, word for word, only what she hears through one earphone.
Term
perceptual constancies
Definition
certain constant attributes of a distal object, such as its shape and size, that we are able to perceive despite the vagaries of the proximal stimulus
Term
shape constancy
Definition
the tendency to perceive objects as retaining their shapes despite changes in our angle of regard that produces changes in the image projected on the retina.
Term
size constancy
Definition
the tendency to perceive objects as retaining their size, despite the increase or decrease in the size of the image projected on the retina caused by moving closer to or farther from the objects.
Term
James Gibson
Definition
perception, specifically perceptual constancies. see higher order patterns and texture elements.
Term
texture elements
Definition
surface variations the indicate the texture of an object (e.g. pebbles on a trail or blades of grass on a lawn) and whose spacing can be used to judge an object's size or one's distance from an object.
Term
higher-order patterns
Definition
in perception, a means by which perceptual constancies are maintained. patterns that usually depend on the relationship between the size (or shape) of the retinal image and various other attributes of the stimulus.
Term
invariant
Definition
some aspect of the proximal stimulus pattern that remains unchanged despite various transformations of the stimulus.
Term
unconscious inference (and who)
Definition
a process postulated by Hermann von Helmholtz to explain certain perceptual phenomena such as size constancy. An object is perceived to be in the distance and is therefore unconsciously judged to be larger than warranted by its retinal image.
Term
Hans Wallach
Definition
lightness constancy. demonstrated that the perception of lightness seems to depend largely on the ratio between the amount of light reflected by the object and that reflected by the object's background.
Term
lightness constancy
Definition
the tendency to perceive the lightness of an object more or less the same despite the fact that light reflected from the object changes with the illumination that falls upon it.
Term
reflectance
Definition
the proportion of light aimed at an object that is reflected by it. determines whether an object is perceived as light or dark.
Term
retention intervals
Definition
in memory experiments, the time that elapses between the original learning and a later test.
Term
working memory
Definition
a part of the memory system that is currently activated but has relatively little cognitive capacity.
Term
long-term memory
Definition
those parts of the memory system that are currently dormant and inactive, but have enormous storage capacity.
Term
episodic memory
Definition
memory for particular events in one's own life (e.g. I missed the train this morning).
Term
generic memory
Definition
memory of items of knowledge as such (e.d., The capital of France is Paris), independent of the occasion on which they were learned.
Term
explicit memory
Definition
memory retrieval in which there is an awareness of remembering at the time of retrieval
Term
implicit memory
Definition
memory retrieval in which there is no awareness of remembering at the time of retrieval
Term
acquisition
Definition
the initial step toward remembering in which new information is taken in
Term
encoding
Definition
the process by which information is stored in memory.
Term
memory trace
Definition
the physical basis of memory; a change in the nervous system brought on by an experience. The exact nature of this change is still uncertain.
Term
recall
Definition
a task in which some item must be produced from memory.
Term
recognition
Definition
a task in which a participant must judge whether he has encountered a stimulus previously.
Term
retrieval
Definition
the process of searching for some item in memory and finding it. If retrieval fails, this may or may not mean that the relevant memory trace is missing. The trace may simply be inaccessible.
Term
memory span
Definition
the number of items that can be recalled after a single presentation.
Term
magic number
Definition
according to George Miller, the number (seven, plus or minus two) that represents the holding capacity of the working memory system.
Term
George Miller
Definition
came up with magic number
Term
decay
Definition
a theory of forgetting in which memory traces erode largely through the passage of time (presumably due to some metabolic events unfolding as time passes).
Term
displacement (memory)
Definition
theory of forgetting that has items pushed out of the way to make room for other items
Term
recency effect
Definition
in free recall, the tendency to recall items at the end of the list more readily than those in the middle.
Term
primacy effect
Definition
in free recall, the tendency to recall items at the beginning of the list more readily than those in the middle.
Term
chunking
Definition
a process of reorganizing (or recoding) materials in memory that permits a number of items to be packed into a larger unit.
Term
recoding
Definition
changing the form in which information is stored.
Term
maintenance rehearsal
Definition
repetition to keep material in working memory for a while. In contrast to elaborative rehearsal, this confers little long-term benefit.
Term
depth-of-processing approach
Definition
an approach to memory that stresses the nature of encoding at the time of acquisition. It argues that deeper levels of processing (for example tending to a word's meaning) lead to better retention and retrieval than shallower levels of processing (for example, attending to the word's sound). Thus, maintenance rehearsal lead's to poorer retrieval than elaborative rehearsal.
Term
mnemonics
Definition
deliberate strategies for helping memory, many of which use imagery
Term
method of loci
Definition
a mnemonic technique that requires the learner to visualize each of the items she wants to remember in a different spatial location (locus). Recall requires that each location be mentally inspected for the item placed there.
Term
retrieval cue
Definition
a stimulus that helps one to recall a memory
Term
encoding specificity principle
Definition
the hypothesis that retrieval is most likely if the context at the time of recall approximates that during the original encoding.
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