Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes

Nature-Nurture Issue

     The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experiences make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

Behaviorism

     The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

  Critical Thinking

     Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Theory

     An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

     A testable prediction often implied by a theory

Case Study

     An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Survey

     A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Placebo Effect

     Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes us an active agent.

Neuron

     A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Neurotransmitters

     Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Endorphins

     “Morphine within”- natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Reflex

     A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

Split Brian

     A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them.

Selective Attention

     The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

REM Sleep

     Rapid Eye Movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as Paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed but other systems are still active.

Hallucinations

     False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Insomnia

     Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Manifest Content

     The remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)

Latent Content

     The underlying meaning of a dream

Addiction

     Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.

Norm 

     An understood rule fro accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.

 Aggression

    Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

Social Learning Theory

 The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Assimilation

   Interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Attachment

     An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by there seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Self-Concept

     Our understanding and evaluation of who we are

Classical Conditioning

     A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Cognitive Map

     A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.

Observational Learning

     Learning by observing others

Modeling

     The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Instinct

     A complex behavior that is rigidly pattered throughout a species and is unlearned

Flow

     A completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills.

Emotions

     A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

James-Lange Theory

     The theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.

Catharsis

     Emotional release; purging of one’s emotions

Stress

The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

     An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts and/or actions.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

     An anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, etc. that linger for weeks after a traumatic event or experience.

Mood Disorder

     Psychological disorders characterized b emotional extremes.

Delusions

     False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.

Attitude 

     Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

Conformity

     Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Discrimination

     Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.

Groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Ingroup

     People whom we share a common identity

Outgroup

     Those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup