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| Two or more persons perceived as related because of their interactions with each other over time, membership in the same social category, or common fate. |
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| A belief that associates a group of people with certain traits |
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| Negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups |
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| Negative behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group. |
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| The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes. |
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| Groups with which an individual feels a sense of belonging or identity. |
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| Groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or identity. |
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| Outgroup homogeneity effect |
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| The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups. |
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| People who tend to see social groups as relatively fixed, static entities and the borders between groups as relatively clear and rigid. |
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| People who tend to see social groups as relatively dynamic and changeable, with less consistency within groups and more malleability between groups. |
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| An overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated |
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| A tendency to perceive stimuli that differ from expectations as being even more different then they really are. |
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| A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them. |
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| Shared goals that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups |
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| Realistic conflict theory |
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Definition
| The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources |
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| Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared to others. |
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| The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups |
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| The theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem |
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| Social dominance orientation |
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Definition
| A desire to see one's ingroups as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups |
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| Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's gender |
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| The theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and woman. |
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| A form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate, chivalrous, but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings. |
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| Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's racial background. |
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| A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize |
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| The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions. |
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| A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in groups efforts. |
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| A positive negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object, or idea. |
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| A multiple-item questionnaire designed to measures a person's attitude toward some object. |
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| A phony lie detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions |
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| An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes |
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Definition
| An attitude--such as prejudice-- that one is not aware of having |
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| Implicit association test (IAT) |
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Definition
| A covert measure of unconscious attitudes, it is derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of concepts--such as blacks or white with good or bad |
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| Theory of planned behavior |
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Definition
| The theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's actions |
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Definition
| The process by which attitudes are change |
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| Central route to persuasion |
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Definition
| The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments |
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| Peripheral route to persuasion |
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Definition
| The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial clues |
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Definition
| The process of thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive communication |
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Definition
| A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source |
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| A personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities |
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| The idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument |
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| The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive |
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| Cognitive dissonance theory |
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Definition
| The theory that holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce |
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| Insufficient justification |
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Definition
| A condition in which people freely perform an attitude discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward. |
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| A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened |
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| People engaged in common activities but having minimal direct interaction |
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| A process whereby the presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks. |
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Definition
| A theory holding that the mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation effects |
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| Evaluation apprehension theory |
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Definition
| A theory holding that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others are seen as potential evaluators. |
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| Distraction-conflict theory |
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Definition
| A theory holding that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others distract from the task and create attentional conflict |
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Definition
| A group-produced reduction in individuals output on easy tasks where contributions are pooled |
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| The theory that individuals will exert effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their individual efforts will be important, relevant and meaningful for achieving outcomes that they value |
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| The loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior. |
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| The exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members |
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| A group decision-making style characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence |
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| The reduction in group performance due to obstacles created by group processes, such as problems of coordination and motivation |
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| A technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or others' contributions |
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| The condition in which commitments to a failing course of action are increased to justify investments already made |
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| A shared system for remembering information that enables multiple people to remember information together more efficiently than they could alone. |
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| A situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone creates the worst outcome for everyone |
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| Social dilemmas concerning how two or more people share a limited resource |
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| Graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction |
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Definition
| A strategy for unilateral, persistent efforts to establish trust and cooperation between opposing parties |
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Definition
| A negotiated resolution to a conflict in which all parties obtain outcomes that are superior to what they would have obtained from an equal division of the contested resources |
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