Term
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Definition
| the sense organs' responses to external stimuli and the transmission of these responses to the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals; it results in an internal representation of the stimulus |
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Definition
| a process by which sensory receptors produce neural impulses when they receive physical or chemical stimulation |
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Term
| signal detection theory (SDT) |
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Definition
| a theory of perception based on the idea that the detection of a faint stimulus requires judgement - it is not an all-or-none process |
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Term
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Definition
| a decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation |
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Definition
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| sensory receptors that transduce taste information |
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Definition
| the sense of smell, which occurs when receptors in the nose respond to chemicals |
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Definition
| a thin layer of tissue, within the nasal cavity, that is embedded with smell receptors |
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Definition
| the brain center for smell, located below the frontal lobes |
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Definition
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Definition
| the sense of sound perception |
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Term
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Definition
| the pattern of the changes in air pressure through time that results in the percept of a sound |
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Term
| eardrum (tympanic membrane) |
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Definition
| a thin membrane, which sound waves vibrate, that maks the beginning of the middle ear |
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Term
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Definition
| the clear outer covering of the eye |
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Term
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Definition
| the thin inner surface of the back of the eyeball; the retina contains photoreceptors that transduce light into neural signals |
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Definition
| the small opening in the eye; it lets in light waves |
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Term
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Definition
| the colored muscular circle on the surface of the eye; it changes shape to let in more or less light |
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Definition
| retinal cells that respond to low levels of illumination and result in black-and-white perception |
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Definition
| retinal cells that respond to higher levels of illumination and result in color perception |
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Term
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Definition
| the center of the retina, where cones are densely packed |
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Term
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Definition
| the region of visual space to which neurons in the primary visual cortex are sensitive |
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Term
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Definition
| a visual process in which adjacent photoreceptors tend to inhibit one another |
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Term
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Definition
| a way to produce a given spectral pattern in which the mixture occurs within the stimulus itself and is actually a physical, not psychological process |
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Term
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Definition
| a way to produce a given spectral pattern in which different wavelengths are mixed; the percept is determined by the interaction of these wavelengths with receptors in the eye and is a psychological process |
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Definition
| perception of our limbs in space |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a hierarchical model of pattern recognition in which data are relayed from one processing level to the next, always moving to a higher level of processing |
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Term
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Definition
| a hierarchical model of pattern recognition in which information at higher levels of processing can also influence lower, earlier levels in the processing hierarchy |
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Term
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Definition
| cues of depth perception that arise from the fact that people have two eyes |
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Term
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Definition
| cues of depth perception that are available to each eye alone |
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Term
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Definition
| a cue of depth perception that is caused by the distance between a person's eyes, which provides each eye with a slightly different image |
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Term
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Definition
| people correctly perceive objects as constant in their shap, size, color, and lightness, despite raw sensory data that could mislead perception |
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Term
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Definition
| an enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience |
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Term
| classical conditioning, or Pavlovian conditioning |
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Definition
| a type of learned response that occurs when a neutral object comes to elicit a reflexive response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response |
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Term
| operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning |
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Definition
| a learning process in which consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future |
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Term
| unconditioned response (UR) |
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Definition
| a response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex |
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Term
| unconditioned stimulus (US) |
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Definition
| a stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning |
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Term
| conditioned stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place |
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Term
| conditioned response (CR) |
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Definition
| a response that has been learned |
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Term
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Definition
| the gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
| a process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| a process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges following presentation of the conditioned stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimuls produce the conditioned response |
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Term
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Definition
| a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| an acquired fear that is out of proporiton to the real threat of an object or situation |
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Term
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Definition
| a cognitive model of classical conditioning; it states that the strenght of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the unconditioned stimulus is unexpected |
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Term
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Definition
| Thorndike's general teory of learning: any behavior that leads to a "satisfying state of affairs" will more likely occur again, and any behavior that leads to an "annoying state of affaris" will less likely recur |
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Term
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Definition
| a stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated |
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Term
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Definition
| a process of operant conditioning; it involves reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar the the desired behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| the increase in the probability of a behavior's being repeated following the removal of a stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| the increase in the probability of a behavior's being repeated through the removal of a stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| punishment that occurs with the rmoval of a stimulus and thus decreases the probability of a behavior's recurring |
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Term
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Definition
| punishment that occurs with the removal of a stimulus and thus decreases the probability of a behavior's recurring |
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Term
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Definition
| a type of learning in which the desired behavior is reinforced each time it occurs |
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Term
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Definition
| a type of learning in which the desired behavior is reinforced intermittently |
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Term
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Definition
| a schedule in which the reinforcement is based on the number of times the behavior occurs |
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Term
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Definition
| a schedule in which reinforcement is available after a specific unit of time |
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Term
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Definition
| a schedule in which reinforcement is consistently provided upon each occurence |
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Term
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Definition
| a schedule in which reinforcement is applied at different rates or at different times |
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Term
| partial-reinforcement extinction effect |
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Definition
| the greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement |
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Term
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Definition
| the use of operant-conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them with desirable ones |
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Term
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Definition
| a visual/spatial mental representation of an environment |
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Term
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Definition
| learning that takes place in the absense of reinforcement |
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Term
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Definition
| a unit of knowledge transfered within a culture |
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Definition
| learning that occurs when behaviors are acquired or modified following exposure to others performing the behavior |
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Definition
| the imitation of behavior through observational learning |
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Term
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Definition
| learning that occurs when people learn the consequences of an action by observing others being rewarded or punished for performing the action |
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Term
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Definition
| neurons that are activated during observation of others performing an action |
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Term
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Definition
| a decrease in behavioral response following repeated exposure to nonthreatening stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
| an increase in behavioral response following exposure to a threatening stimulus |
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Term
| long-term potentiation (LTP) |
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Definition
| the strengthening of a synaptic connection so that postsynaptic neurons are more easily activated |
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Term
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Definition
| the nervous system's capacity to acquire and retain usable skills and knowledge |
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Term
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Definition
| the mind processes primitive features automatically and simultaneously |
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Term
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Definition
| the common failure to notice large changes in environments |
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Term
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Definition
| the processing of information so that it can be stored |
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Term
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Definition
| the retention of encoded representations over time that corresponds to some change in the nervous system that registers the event |
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Term
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Definition
| the act of recalling or remembering stored information to use it |
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Term
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Definition
| the three-stage memory system that involves sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| memory for sensory information that is stored briefly close to its original sensory form |
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Term
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Definition
| a limited-capacity memory system that holds information in awareness for a brief period |
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Term
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Definition
| an active processing system that keeps different types of information available for current use |
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Definition
| organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember |
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Term
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Definition
| the relatively permanent storage of information |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation, with items presented early or late in the list remembered beter than those in the middle |
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Term
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Definition
| the system underlying unconscious memories |
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Term
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Definition
| the processes involved when people remember specific information |
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Term
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Definition
| the cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge that can be declared |
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Definition
| memory for one's personal past experiences |
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Definition
| memory for knowledge about the world |
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Term
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Definition
| a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits |
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Term
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Definition
| remembering to do something at some time in the future |
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Term
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Definition
| a hypothetical cognitive structure that helps us perceive, organize, process, and use information |
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Term
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Definition
| anything that helps a person (or other animal) recall information from memory |
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Term
| encoding specificity principle |
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Definition
| any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger memory for the experience |
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Term
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Definition
| a hypothetical process involving the transfer of contents from immediate memory into long-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| neural processes involved when memories are recalled and then stored again for later retrieval |
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Term
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Definition
| memory for the physical environment; it includes things such as location of objects, direction, and cognitive maps |
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Term
| posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |
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Definition
| a mental disorder that involves frequent nightmares, intrusive thoughts, and flashbacks related to an earlier trauma |
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Term
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Definition
| the inability to retrieve memory from long-term storage |
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Term
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Definition
| the pattern of forgetting over time |
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Term
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Definition
| when prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information |
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Term
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Definition
| when new information inhibits the ability to remember old information |
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Term
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Definition
| the temporary inability to remember something that is known |
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Term
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Definition
| the inattentive or shallow encoding of events |
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Term
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Definition
| deficits in long-term memory that result from disease, brain injury, of psychological trauma |
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Term
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Definition
| the condition in which people lose pase memories for events, facts, people, or even personal information |
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Term
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Definition
| the inability to form new memories |
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Term
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Definition
| vivid memories for the circumstances in which one first learned of a surprising, consequential, or emotionally arousing event |
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Term
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Definition
| memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the itm, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory |
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Term
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Definition
| a type of misattribution that occurs when a person thinks he or she has come up with a new idea, yet has only retrieved a stored idea and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source |
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Definition
| the development of biased memories when people are provided with misleading information |
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Definition
| a type of amnesia that occurs when a person shows memory for an event but cannot remember where he or she encountered the information |
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Term
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Definition
| the false recollection of episodic memory |
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Term
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Definition
| the changing of memories over time in ways consistent with prior beliefs |
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Definition
| strategies for improving memory |
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Term
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Definition
| mental activity such as thinking or repersenting information |
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Term
| analogical representation |
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Definition
| a mental representation that has some of the physical characteristics of an object; it is analogous to the object |
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Definition
| an abstract mental representation that does not correspond to the physical features of an object or idea |
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Definition
| a mental representation that groups or categorizes objects, events, or relations around common themes |
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Term
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Definition
| the idea that a concept is characterized by a list of features that are necessary to determine if an object is a member of the category |
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Definition
| an approach to object categorization that is based on the premise that within each category, some members are more representative than others |
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Definition
| information stored about the members of a category that is used to determine category membership |
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Definition
| using information to determine if a conclusion is valid or reasonable |
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Definition
| attempting to select the best alternative among several options |
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Definition
| finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal |
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Definition
| using a belief or rule to determine if a conclution is valid (follows logically from the belief or rule) |
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Definition
| using examples or instances to determine if a rule or conclusion is likely to be true |
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Term
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Definition
| in problem solving, shortcuts (rules of thumb or informal guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to move from an initial state to a goal state |
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Definition
| making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind |
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Term
| representativeness heuristic |
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Definition
| a rule for categorization based on how similar the person or object is to our prototypes for that category |
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Definition
| the effect of presentation on how information is perceived |
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Definition
| the sudden realization of a solution to a problem |
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Definition
| a new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution |
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Definition
| a problem solving strategy that has worked in the past |
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Term
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Definition
| the human ability to use knowledge, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental changes |
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Term
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Definition
| an assessment of a child's intellectual standing relative to that of his or her peers; determined by a comparison of the child's test score with the average score for children of each chronological age |
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Term
| intelligence quotient (IQ) |
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Definition
| the number computed by dividing a child's estimated mental age by the child's chronological age, and them multiplying this number by 100 |
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Term
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Definition
| the idea that one general factor underlies all mental abilities |
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Definition
| information processing in novel or complex circumstances |
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Term
| crystallized intelligence |
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Definition
| knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use that knowledge |
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Term
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Definition
| the idea that people can show different skills in a variety of different domains |
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Term
| emotional intelligence (EQ) |
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Definition
| a form of social intelligence that emphasizes the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions to guide thoughts and actions |
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Term
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Definition
| apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to one's own group |
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