Term
| Sources of motivation (4) |
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Definition
| biological, cognitive, social, emotional |
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Term
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Definition
William James
motivation arises from instincts
humans share these instincts |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| attribution, stereotypes, attitudes |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the ways we think, feel and act towards others |
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Term
| what social cognition is shaped by (4) |
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Definition
language
television
products
legal system |
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Term
| attribution theory (and who) |
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Definition
we try to understand the behaviors of other people
(Fritz Heider) |
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Term
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Definition
an inference about what caused a person's behavior
situational
dispositional |
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Term
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Definition
involve factors external to the person
ed. "He must have cut me off because he was in a hurry to get somewhere important" |
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Term
| dispositional attributions |
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Definition
involve factors internal to the personal
"he cut me off because he is a terrible driver and a mean person" |
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Term
| dispositional and situational attributions are examples of what kind of attributions, and what theory? |
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Definition
| casual attributions and attribution theory |
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Term
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Definition
emphasize how people are interdependent
tend to make situational attributions |
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Term
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Definition
emphasize how people are independent
tend to make dispositional attributions |
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Term
| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
ideas about personality tend to differ across cultures
collectivist cultures: self as changing across time and context
individualist cultures: self as stable across time and context |
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Term
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Definition
even though prejudice and discrimination are less socially acceptable, stereotypes can still affect our thoughts and behavior
- implicit association test (IAT) |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to favor one's own group |
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Term
| out-group homogeneity effect |
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Definition
| individuals see members of their own group as being more varied than members of other groups |
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Term
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Definition
| he practice of singling out one child, employee, member of a group of peers, ethnic or religious group, or country for unmerited negative treatment or blame. |
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Term
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Definition
fairly stable evaluation of something as 'good' or 'bad'
beliefs
feelings
predisposition to act in accord with these beliefs and feelings
attitudes are learned, but can be changed |
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Term
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Definition
| people tend to surround themselves with people who have similar backgrounds and interests |
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Term
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Definition
attitudes can be learned
classical/operant conditioning
observational learning |
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Term
| self-perception theory (and person) |
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Definition
daryl bem
we understand our own attitudes by observing our own behaviors and deciding what caused them |
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Term
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Definition
| if we care about the issue, careful consideration of evidence, logical arguments, credibility of the source |
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Term
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Definition
if we don't care about the issue or are distracted
focus on superficial factors (appearance, charisma of person presenting the argument) |
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Term
| contact theory (and person) |
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Definition
gordon allport
aimed at reducing prejudice
groups must have:
equal status, common goals, intergroup cooperation and support from authorities |
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Term
| cognitive dissonance (and person) |
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Definition
leon festinger
an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding conflicting ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and actions. |
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Term
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Definition
chemistry that draws and binds two people together
friendship
love |
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Term
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Definition
| tendency to assume that people with one good trait also have other good traits |
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Term
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Definition
| people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them |
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Term
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Definition
we are more likely to be attracted to people who are near us
relationships
friends |
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Term
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Definition
| a pleasurable feeling of excitement and wonder associated with love. |
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Term
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Definition
affection for those whose lives are deeply intertwined with out own
similarity of outlook, mutual caring, and trust |
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Term
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Definition
| marriage between individuals who are, in some culturally important way, similar to each other. Homogamy may be based on socio-economic status, class, gender, ethnicity, or religion. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
individual behavior is driven by the environment
perhaps the most important aspect of the environment is the people around us |
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Term
| 3 forms of social influence necessary for the functioning of social groups |
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Definition
| conformity, obedience, compliance |
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Term
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Definition
| a change in behavior due to social pressure |
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Term
| Studies of conformity -- sherif (and year) |
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Definition
1937
participants viewed a 'moving light' that was actually an illusion
participants were then asked how much the light moved
when part of a group, answers converged with those of their group members
a confederate entered the experiment
the confederate gave an answer that was much higher or lower than others
participant responses followed the confederate's lead |
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Term
| studies of conformity -- Asch |
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Definition
| presented participants with 2 cards, a standard line and comparison lines, and asked them to choose which of the comparison lines matched the standard line. when confederates agreed with participants, they always chose the right answer, when all confederates gave the wrong responses, MOST participants also gave some wrong responses. |
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Term
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Definition
| information influence, and normative influence |
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Term
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Definition
people's desire to be correct
others may provide more valuable information |
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Term
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Definition
| people's desire not to appear foolish, we want to be liked/accepted and not rejected |
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Term
| when are we more likely to conform? (4) |
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Definition
| in a collectivist culture, when the group is larger, when the group is unanimous, and when we admire the group's status and attractiveness |
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Term
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Definition
change in behavior in response to an instruction or command from another person
personality plays a role in obedience |
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Term
| milgram's obedience study |
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Definition
two people ar ebrought into a room and assigned roles, the participant "teacher" and the confederate "learner", who is hidden from the view of the participant
the teacher gives a shock to the learner when the answer is wrong, the shock increases each time, and the machine does not actually give a shock.
question:how far will people go when asked to do something
about 65% obeyed all the way to the end
administered what they thought might have been life-threatening shocks
cited as possible explanation for genocide and other atrocities
debate over benefits and ethical concerns of this research |
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Term
| when are we more likely to obey? (4) |
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Definition
when we believe we are not ultimately responsible
when there is greater psychological distance between actions and the result of those actions
when victim is dehumanized
when we perceive the authority figure as being more valid |
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Term
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Definition
change in behavior in response to a request, we are asked to do something, but not necessarily pressured
we often comply due to the norm of reciprocity
social standard suggesting a favor should be repaid, and other will owe us if we do them a favor |
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Term
| techniques for gaining compliance (4) |
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Definition
that's-not-all
foot-in-the-door
door-in-the-face
low-ball |
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Term
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Definition
| start with a modest offer, and then improve on it |
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Term
| techniques for gaining compliance (4) |
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Definition
that's-not-all
foot-in-the-door
door-in-the-face
low-ball |
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Term
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Definition
| start with a modest offer, and then improve on it |
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Term
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Definition
| start with a small request, then make a larger one |
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Term
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Definition
| request something big you know you won't get then make a reasonable request |
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Term
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Definition
| get a commitment, then raise the price |
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Term
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Definition
| behavior is influenced by the presence of an audience |
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Term
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Definition
| perform better in the presence of others |
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Term
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Definition
| perform worse in the presence of others |
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Term
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Definition
| when people work as a team, the contribution produced by each team member is often less than the work each person would have done if working independently (tug of war) |
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Term
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Definition
the presence of other people can cause it
individuals lose awareness of themselves as separate individuals
indiviuals give in to impulses suggested by the situation
it's produced either by anonymity or by having an assigned role |
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Term
| stanford prison experiment |
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Definition
stanford students assigned roles as guards or prisoners, quickly took on roles of actual guards and prisoners, engaged in abusive and inhumane behavior
study had to be but short after only several days |
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Term
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Definition
| decisions made by groups ar emore extreme than decisions made by individuals |
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Term
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Definition
groups will downplay any disagreements or differences of opinion among group members
group members do all they can to promote group cohesion |
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Term
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Definition
people in a group are less likely to help strangers in distress when they're alone
the larger the group, the less likely a person is to help |
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Term
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Definition
wrongly think that other group members don't share our perception
contributes to bystander effect |
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Term
| diffusion of responsibility |
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Definition
| everyone in a group believes that someone else will respond |
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Term
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Definition
altruism is helping behavior that has no benefit to the helper
despite risks and costs, we do see altruistic behavior in many situations
some of these DO actually benefit the helper
but people in many cultures engage in altruistic acts that are truly selfless |
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Term
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Definition
nuclei of the two cells merge and create 23 pairs of chromosomes
cell division produces a mass of identical cells called the Blastocyst
zygote - fertilized egg formed by the union of sperm and egg |
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Term
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Definition
3-8 weeks
the blastocyse attaches itself to the uterine wall and is now called the embryo |
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Term
| three types of cells result from cell differentiation (embryonic stage) |
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Definition
skin and nervous system
muscle and skeletal system
respiratory and digestive system |
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Term
| structures important for the support of the embryo develop |
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Definition
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Term
| functions of placenta and umbilical cord (4) |
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Definition
| nutrition, antibodies, exchange of gases, elimination of waste |
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Term
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Definition
early body systems and structures continue to grow and develop
simple behaviors and capacity to learn present |
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Term
prenatal environment
local and external factors |
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Definition
development is guided by the genome, but environmental factors are also crucial
local factors:
neighboring cells
hormones
external factors
maternal nutrition and health
teratogen : factors that disrupt development
alcohol
lead (mental retardation) |
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Term
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Definition
tremendous neural growth, increase in brain size and complexity
sensorimotor development |
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Term
| fairly advanced sensory capacities |
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Definition
brightness and color
pitch and loudness |
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Term
early motor abilities:
infant reflexes |
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Definition
involuntary muscular responses to particular stimuli
grasp reflex
rooting reflex
sucking reflex |
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Term
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Definition
| when an infant's palm is touched, she closes her hand into a fist |
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Term
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Definition
| when an infact's cheek stroked, her mouth opens, head turns towards the stimulus till it is in the mouth (in preparation for nursing) |
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Term
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Definition
| when area around the mouth is stimulated |
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Term
| jean piaget's stage theory |
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Definition
children as active learners
'little scientists'
generate hypotheses, conduct experiments, and draw conclusions
learn lessons on their own
intrinsically motivated to learn
schemas continually shaped by assimilation : existing mental schemas used to interpret and act on the environment and accommodation : they 'accomodate' new information in existing schemas. children's schemas change and broaden as a result of interaction swith the environment |
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Term
| Piaget's stages of cognitive development: |
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Definition
sensorimotor (~birth - 2years)
preoperational (~2-7 years)
concrete operational (~7-12)
formal operations (12+ yrs) |
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Term
| development moves through a series of stages which are considered : |
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Definition
discontinuous
each stage is qualitatively different
invariant
each stage follows same fixed order
universal
same for all children around the world
parallel
same rate across multiple domains |
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Term
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Definition
birth - 2years
object permanence
the understanding that an object exists even when it is out of sight |
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Term
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Definition
2-7 yrs
egocentrism
inability to distinguish between perspectives of self and other
animism
objects are capable of actions and have life-like qualities
inability to interrelate or manipulate mental representations as operations
fail to consider two physical dimensions simultaneously
can classify based on a single feature (can group by color but not by shape AND color)
fail on conservation tasks
conservation:
the understanding that quantity, length or number of intems is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object
volume of liquid
liquid
numbers |
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Term
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Definition
7-12 yrs
achieved:
classification (based on multiple dimensions)
conservation
elimination of egocentrism
can apply mental operations only to concrete objects or events |
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Term
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Definition
12+ years
abstract thinking
logical reasoning and problem solving
hypothetical-deductive reasoning
the ability to develop a hypothesis and systematically deduce or conclude
take interest in social relations, politics, religion an dmay challenge beliefs and conventions |
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Term
development does not occur in parallel
true or false |
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Definition
true
culture and experience makes a difference in development |
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Term
| evidence refuting piaget's theory has focused on what stage? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Piaget's 3 mountain display
preoperational children can describe what they see but they have trouble describing what others see
inability to take others' perspective
children perform better with more familiar, easily differentiated objects |
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Term
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Definition
the recognition that objects continue to exist when out of view
piaget: infants do not search for hidden objects until 8 months |
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Term
| violation-of-expectation method |
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Definition
babies (and adults) look longer when they're surprised by something
show infants 2 events:
possible event, consistent with object permanence
impossible event, violates object permanence
if infants have object permanence they will look longer at impossible than possible event |
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Term
| Baillargeon's Rolling Cart Study |
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Definition
results:
both 8- and 6.5month olds look longer at impossible event
infants have object permanence at 6.5 months! |
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Term
| piaget set the stage for modern child psychology by taking seriously children's thinking and trying to understand how they differ from adults |
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Definition
children are generally much more competent (at earlier ages) than Piaget believed
their performance depends on construction of tasks and their own experience on similar tasks |
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Term
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Definition
further studies show that infants can perceive numerical equivalence provided the number of objects in the set is small enough
6 month old infants get habituated after being presented with a slide with 3 of a particular object
once that changes to two objects, infants look longer |
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Term
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Definition
| 6 month olds understand others' actions in terms of their goals, and not just the specific movements themselves |
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Term
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Definition
the concepts we use to make sense of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors and those of others
preschoolers don't yet have a well-developed theory of mind |
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Term
| theory of mind: false beliefs task |
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Definition
virtually all 3 year olds will mistakenly believe that a third party (who does not see the switch) will look for the object in the new location
they assume that everyone shares their beliefs
others won't have false beliefs
by 4.5-5 years, children understand that not all knowledge is shared
individuals may have different beliefs and different information available to them |
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Term
| origins of symbolic reasoning |
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Definition
| a symbol is anything that stands for something else |
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Term
| the scale model task (DeLoache): Find Snoopy |
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Definition
Procedure:
2.5 year olds and 3 year olds; big room and scale model
show and hide snoopy in one room
find snoopy in other room
results:
3 year olds succeed
2.5 year olds fail |
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Term
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Definition
children in preoperational stage are good at providing magical explanations for complex phenomena
they also easily accept magical explanations from others with little questioning |
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Term
emotional milestones present shortly after birth (3)
ones that emerge at around 6 months |
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Definition
distress, disgust, interest
ones that emerge - 6 months |
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Term
| infant emotion regulation |
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Definition
limited capacity for control (eg turn away, suck finger)
depend on caregiver for soothing |
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Term
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Definition
gains in language lead to communication with caregiver
develop new strategies
emotional outbursts decrease |
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Term
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Definition
| from a very early age, infants are interested in face-to-face interaction |
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Term
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Definition
when infants begin to crawl (7 to 9 months), they begin to rely on facial cues
helps them determine if a situation is dangerous |
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Term
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Definition
children pick up on parents strategies (Meltzoff)
'mother baby dance' (Tronick)
synchrony between parent-child
parent and child are 'in tune' and react to each other |
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Term
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Definition
emerges 6-8 months
peaks 8-10 months
response to unfamiliar people |
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Term
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Definition
peaks 13-15 months
response to being away from caregiver |
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Term
| what contributes to social and emotional development |
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Definition
two general categories have been studied extensively
children's innate emotional tendencies
parenting and family influences |
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Term
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Definition
individual differences in emotional and behavioral functioning
emerges early in life
biologically based
somewhat stable over time |
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Term
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Definition
adaptability
response to environmental changes
'roll with the punches' vs slow to acclimate
persistence
response to challenges and obstacles
gives up vs keeps at it
activity level
energetic vs calm |
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Term
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Definition
easy
positive mood and adaptable
slow to warm up
slow to adapt and low activity level
difficult
negative mood, unadaptable, intense emotional reactions
difficulty is most widely studied temperament dimension |
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Term
| temperamental style influences ability to regulate emotions and affects social interactions |
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Definition
parents respond differently to different types of temperament
also related to styles of interacting with peers in later childhood |
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Term
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Definition
an enduring emotional tie between 2 people
infants form attachment to caregivers
attachment formed during 2nd half of the first year of life |
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Term
| john bowlby's attachment theory |
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Definition
children use their caregivers as a 'secure base'
parents provide a 'safe haven' so that children can explore the world
this attachment relationship serves as an 'internal working model'
guides how they interact in other relationships |
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Term
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Definition
beneficial for the child's safety (and survival) to maintain proximity to the caregiver
(why infants become attached) |
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Term
| infants become attached because of feeding |
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Definition
behaviorism suggests that infants go to mother to get relief from hunger
positive associations from drive reduction lead to attachment |
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Term
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Definition
monkeys reared with surrogate moms in a cage
one wire monkey who provided food
one cloth monkey who did not provide food
babies spent significantly more time with the cloth mother
even though they weren't the one to provide food
comfort (not just feeding) is a basis for attachment |
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Term
| ainsworth's 'strange situation' procedure |
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Definition
used with 1-2 year old children
series of separations and reunions from the caregiver
a stranger is introduced
how does baby react to this somewhat stressful situation? |
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Term
| secure attachment (~65% of children) |
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Definition
explore freely in caregiver's presence
often visibly upset when caregiver leaves
greet caregiver warmly at reunion |
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Term
| insecure attachment (~35% of children) |
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Definition
| several different categories of insecure attachment |
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Term
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Definition
not distressed by separation
avoid contact with caregiver upon reunion |
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Term
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Definition
very distressed and don't settle easily upon reunions
mix proximity-seeking and angry behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| benefits of secure attachment |
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Definition
better problem-solving skills
greater social competence/peer relations
less aggression, more empathy
emotional implications later on, self-esteem, anxiety, emotional distress |
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Term
| how do children become securely attached? |
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Definition
best predictor is sensitive parenting
parents who are warm and responsive to their child's needs are more likely to have children who are securely attached to them |
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Term
| adult attachment interview (mary main) |
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Definition
retrospective accounts of own experiences
e.g. what were your parents like?
those narratives are classified based on
how their experience in integrated
not exactly what happened |
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Term
| Autonomous/secure adult attachment |
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Definition
provide coherent, realistic view of their parents
provide details that show objectivity and balance
opposed to insecure categories
dismissing, preoccupied, and unresolved
each AAI category maps onto a strange situation category |
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Term
| attachment across generations |
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Definition
parents adult attachment classifications predict the quality of attachment with their children
parents who have autonomous narratives are more likely to have children who are securely attached to them |
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Term
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Definition
attachment classifications appear to be fairly stable across early childhood
other researchers have examined the role of parenting in older children
identified different types of parenting styles |
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Term
| Baumrind's parenting styles |
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Definition
parenting varies along two separate dimensions
warmth/responsiveness
degree of comfort and support parents provide
control/demandingness
degree of limit-setting that parents provide |
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Term
| parenting styles classifications |
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Definition
authoritative - high on both dimensions
authoritarian - high on control, low on warmth
permissive - low on control, high on warmth
uninvolved - low on both dimensions |
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Term
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Definition
authoritative parenting is the most adaptive parenting style -- leads to the best child outcomes across childhood
generally, authoritarian is the next best, followed by permissive and then uninvolved is the worst
but the adaptiveness of each parenting style depends on culture as well |
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Term
| why are friendships important |
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Definition
friendships and peer relationships take on more importance as children get older
some roles they play
-play companions
- models and instructors
- social comparison
- confidant
- source of emotional support |
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Term
| measuring peer acceptance |
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Definition
sociometric data - used to study group interactions
one common technique
positive nominations (who do you like most?)
neg (who do you like least?)
could also measure on a 'likeability' scale |
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Term
| peer acceptance categories (# of nominations) |
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Definition
popular: many positive, few negative
rejected: many negative, few positive
controversial: many positive, many negative
neglected: few positive, few negative
average: moderate, few extreme ratings |
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Term
| outcomes of peer rejection |
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Definition
rejected children are:
more lonely
more depressed
more socially anxious
and at risk for
dropping out of school, truancy
depression and low self-esteem
delinquency and antisocial behavior |
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Term
| Kohlberg's stages of moral development |
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Definition
1. preconventional stage 1+2
focus on obeying and avoiding punishment
2. conventional level stage 3+4
focus on following rules, pleasing others, fulfulling roles
3. postconventional level (stage 5+6)
focus on universal principles of justice, equality, respect for human life |
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Term
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Definition
erik erikson charted socioemotional development during adolescence
cannot move on to one stage until you've resolved prior issue
the key focus during adolescence is identity versus role confusion
success = stable sense of ego identity
less satisfactory outcome = identity confusion or emergence of a negative identity |
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Term
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Definition
sometimes, but not usually, turbulent
characterized by risk-taking behviors
failing to take dangers seriously
immaturity in the adolescent's prefrontal cortex
peer relationships take on even greater importance |
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