Term
| What are some expressive stereotypes of women and instrumental stereotypes of men? |
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Definition
Men: independent, aggressive, and power-oriented (Leaning towards breadwinner)
Women: Warm and Sensitive (Leaning towards nurturing/caregiver in the home) |
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Term
| What is the timeline of gender awareness and identity in children? |
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Definition
•Children being becoming aware of their genitals before age 1
•Aware of differences between boys and girls between 1-2
•Develop a sense of personal gender Identity by the time they are 3
•Stable gender identity by 4 years
•One of the first classifications |
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Term
| What stage did Freud think was most crucial for gender development? |
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Definition
Phallic stage onward important for gender development
•Task is to become masculine or feminine
–Freud said gender development and sexual development (sexual orientation) occur simultaneously
•More complicated and difficult for boys
–Girls can learn to identify with their mother
–Boys must detach themselves from his identification with his mother |
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Term
| What were Tannen’s findings about differences in men’s and women’s communication? |
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Definition
Girls engage in more self-disclosure and are better at active listening. Boys tend to bost and jokey for position in peer groups.
Rapport Talk: girls participate in this more often. It is the language of conversation. It involves establishing connections and negotiating relationships.
Report Talk: This is more the male kind of talking. It is talk that gives information. Includes things such as public speaking, storytelling, joking and lecturing with information. |
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Term
| What are some evidence of sex biases in schools? |
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Definition
-School personnel tend to stereotype boys’ behavior as problematic
-Boys are more likely to be criticized than girls and have learning problems, especially in the areas of the arts.
-Boys get more attention, instruction and help than girls.
-In many classrooms, teachers spend more time watching and interacting with boys, whereas girls work and play quietly on their own.
-etc, etc, etc! |
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Term
| What are some of the dimensions of variation in the definitions of masculinity and femininity? |
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Definition
–1) culture to culture
–2) in one culture over time
–3) across one person’s life span (age-based)
–4) within a culture at one time
•Space, race, class, ethnicity, education, region…and I add religion |
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Term
| What are some of the impacts of media on boys and girls views of themselves and the opposite gender? |
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Definition
–Early adolescence may be a period of heightened sensitivity to television messages about gender roles
–The world of television is highly gender-stereotyped and conveys clear messages about the relative power and importance of women and men (Calvert, 2008)
–The media influence adolescents’ body images, and some studies reveal gender differences in this area (Grabe & Hyde, 2009)
•Media is a gendered institution that
1) Reflects existing stereotypes
2) constructs those very gender differences
3) reproduces gender inequality by making it seem “natural” |
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Term
| What is gender schema theory? |
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Definition
| The theory states that gender-typing emerges as children and adolescents gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture. As children and adolescents develop schemas about gender appropriate activity within their culture they begin to act in accordance with their schema. |
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Term
| What is the role of reinforcements in social cognitive theory? |
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Definition
| Society uses reinforcements to teach children gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior. Ex: “Karen, that dress you are wearing makes you look so beautiful.” “Bobby, you were so aggressive in that game. Way to go!” |
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Term
| What are the different types of aggression and which gender participates in which type more? |
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Definition
| There is physical aggression which boys usually participate in more and there is relational aggression which in some studies shows no difference between boys and girls and in other studies put girls as higher. Relational aggression involves harming someone by manipulating a relationship. |
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Term
| What is androgyny and how is it measured? |
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Definition
| Androgyny is the presence of a high degree of masculine and feminine characteristics in the same individual. It is measured with the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. |
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Term
|
Definition
| This “boy code” tells boys that they should show little if any emotion as they are growing up. Too often boys are socialized to not show their feelings and to act touch. Boys learn the boy code in many different contexts (playground, camps, school) and are taught it by many different people |
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Term
| What is the gender strain theory? |
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Definition
–Joseph Pleck (1995) concludes that what defines traditional masculinity is often contradictory
–Behaviors that do not have social approval but nonetheless validate the adolescent boy’s masculinity:
•Premarital sex
•Alcohol and drugs
•Illegal delinquent activities |
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Term
| What is the female “double bind”? |
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Definition
Either “feminine” and Powerless
Or succeed and be termed “unfeminine,” unattractive, power-hungery |
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Term
| When are children/adolescence most feel pressured to conform to gender roles? (gender role intensification?) |
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Definition
| This hypothosis states that psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls becomes greater during early adolescence because of increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional gender roles. |
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Term
| What are teen attitudes about sexual intercourse and oral sex? |
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Definition
| They think oral sex is less intimate and not real sex |
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Term
| What are some cultural differences regarding timing of first sexual experience and whether or not males or females are married? |
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Definition
–Rates of first intercourse by age 17
•72% females in Mali; 76% males in Jamaica
•47% females, 64% males in US
•45% females in Tanzania, 63% males in Brazil
•Asian countries (Japan and China) assumed to have be later
–Males – unmarried, females in developing countries – 2/3 married |
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Term
| What are some reasons boys cite for having sex and some reasons girls cite? |
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Definition
–Females
•Link sex with love
–one of the primary reasons females report being sexually active
•Also cite male pressure, keep a boyfriend, curiosity and sexual desire as reasons
–In US males taught to make sexual advances & up to females to set limits |
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Term
| What are some problems linked with early sexual experiences? |
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Definition
•Early Adolescents not ready for sex
•Linked to other risky behaviors
–Drug use - & substance abuse disorders in emerging adulthood
–Delinquency
–School problems |
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Term
| How does the media portray sex among adolescences and young adults? |
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Definition
–Sex is explicitly portrayed in movies, videos, lyrics of popular music, MTV, and Internet web sites (Bersamin & others, 2010); Nalkur, Jamieson, & Romer, 2010); Strasburger, 2010; Tolman & McClelland, 2011)
–Adolescents increasingly have had access to sexually explicit Web sites
–Adolescents and emerging adults use the Internet as a resource for information about sexuality |
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Term
| What are some reasons it is difficult to know if you are getting accurate answers about sexual experiences from adolescents if you are a researcher? |
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Definition
•Assessing sexual attitudes and behavior is not always a straightforward matter (Hock, 2010; Saewyc, 2011)
•Research is limited by the reluctance of some individuals to answer candid questions about extremely personal matters
•When asked about their sexual activity, individuals may respond truthfully or they may give socially desirable answers
–Boys tend to exaggerate their sexual experiences to increase perceptions of their sexual prowess, while girls tend to play down their sexual experience so they won’t be perceived as irresponsible or promiscuous (Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2009) |
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Term
| What are some risks and benefits of oral sex compared to vaginal sex? |
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Definition
–Oral sex negates the risk of pregnancy
–Fewer negative outcomes than vaginal sex
–But some STIs can be transferred through oral sex and protection is much less likely to be used – one of the most frequent ones
•Common: Herpes, chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis
•Less frequent: HIV, Hepatitis A, B, & C, genital warts, pubic lice |
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Term
| What is a sexual script? How do these differ for males and females? |
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Definition
•Sexual scripts are culture dependent
–Not all cultures expect female to set the limits
–For example – problems during WWII when american men went to Europe and expected women to set limits
•In England at the time men were to set the limits
•Led to a lot of sex and Europeans thinking Americans were sex crazy and Americans thinking Europeans were easy
•Double standard of Sexuality in US
–Girls thought of as sexual objects of desire
–Boys – supposed to desire and look for sex
–Girls – supposed to not desire = be sexy, but control your own desire |
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Term
| What are some risk factors for engaging in early sexual experiences/getting pregnant? |
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Definition
•Risk Factors for early sexual behavior
–Girls: alcohol use, early menarche, poor parent-child communication
–Low SES, poverty, family/peer factors, school-related
–Child maltreatment, including sexual abuse
•Increased risk of early sexual experiences, prostitution, and HIV by adulthood
•Risks for teen pregnancy
–Sexually active older siblings
–Older sisters who were pregnant as teenagers increased risk of pregnancy
–Deviant and pregnant peer group
-Cognitive factors: Attention & self-regulation |
|
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Term
| What are some hypotheses about causes of homosexuality? Do hormone injections change the sexual orientation in adults? |
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Definition
–Hormone studies
•Androgens do not change sexual orientation – just increase sexual desire
•Critical period in pregnancy – 2nd-5th month – difficult to change later |
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Term
| What is the coming out process? Is it usually immediate or gradual? What is passing? |
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Definition
–Often recognize same-sex attraction in early adolescence but try to deny (over 50%)
–Often takes many years to “come-out” and a gradual process
•Passing – try to hide sexual orientation |
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Term
| What is the most frequent sexual outlet for teens and how do they feel about it? |
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Definition
•Masturbation
•80% males, 48% females
•Less guilt, but embarrassed and defensive |
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Term
| How do US adolescents compare to European adolescents in terms of contraceptive use, pregnancy rates, messages they receive about sexuality and child bearing? |
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Definition
•Researchers have also found that U.S. adolescents use condoms less than their counterparts in Europe
-Pill use also continues to be higher in European countries
•United States one of the highest adolescent pregnancy and childbearing rates in the industrialized world
•Why are U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates so high?
–Vs. European messages
•Childbearing regarded as adult activity
–Expectation of waiting till established to have children
•Clear messages about sexual behavior
–Other countries more accepting of sexual behavior, but expect use of protection and prevention of pregnancy
•Access to family planning services
–Greater access in Europe
–Abortion more acceptable
–27% of pregnancies end in abortion in US |
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Term
| What are some risks to both teen moms and babies? |
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Definition
•Babies
–more likely to be born preterm and low birth weights
•a prominent factor in infant mortality
•as well as neurological problems and childhood illness (Khashan, Baker, & Kenny, 2010)
–Lower IQs
–1/5 receive prenatal care
–Less competent parents & unrealistic expectations
•Adolescent mothers often drop out of school |
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Term
| What are some of the long-term problems associated with children of teenage mothers? |
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Definition
•Complex factors -Mothers
–Low SES
–Poor students
•Fathers
–Lack of involvement, more children, less education, less income |
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Term
| What are some common characteristics of rapists? |
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Definition
•Aggression enhances their sense of power or masculinity
•They are angry at females generally
•They want to hurt their victims |
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Term
| What are some risk factors of becoming a victim of sexual assault? |
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Definition
•Living on campus
•Being unmarried
•Getting drunk frequently
•Having been sexually victimized on a prior occasion |
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Term
| What are the two forms of sexual harassment and examples of these in a school setting? |
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Definition
–Quid pro quo sexual harassment: Occurs when a school employee threatens to base an educational decision (such as a grade) on a student’s submission to unwelcome sexual conduct
–Hostile environment sexual harassment: Occurs when students are subjected to unwelcome sexual conduct that is so severe, persistent, or pervasive that it limits the students’ ability to benefit from their education |
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Term
| Compare abstinence-only sex ed to comprehensive. Which are parents generally more in favor of? Which reduces pregnancy rates and STI rates more? |
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Definition
•abstinence-only
–Two recent research reviews found that abstinence-only programs do not delay the initiation of sexual intercourse and do not reduce HIV risk behaviors (Kirby, Laris, & Rolleir, 2007; Underhill, Montgomery, & Operario, 2007)
•A recent study revealed that adolescents who experienced comprehensive sex education were less likely to report adolescent pregnancies than those who were given abstinence-only sex education or no education (Kohler, Manhart, & Lafferty, 2008) |
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Term
| What are Kohlberg’s stages of morality and the key differences between them? |
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Definition
Kolhberg has 3 levels with 2 stages in each level.
the 1st stage is based on punishment and fear - acting morally because of fear.
the 2nd stage is about following the laws. People act morally because they know they are supposed to.
the 3rd stage is about having personal morals and following those morals.
Level 1: Preconventional
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation
children obey because adults tell them to.
Base your decisions on fear of punishment
Stage 2: Individualism, instrumental purpose and exchange
individuals purse their own interests but let others to the same.
equal exchange - the golden rule, etc.
Level 2: Conventional
Stage 3: Individualism, instrumental purpose and exchange
individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgemnts
Stage 4: Social systems morality
Moral judgments are based on understanding of the social order, law, justice, and duty
Level 3: Postconventional
Stage 5: social contract or utility and individual rights
individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law.
Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
a person has developed moral judgments that are based on universal human rights.
when faced with a dilemma, a person chooses their individual conscience over the law. |
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Term
| What are some criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory? |
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Definition
Some people think that Kohlberg puts too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough emphasis on moral behavior
Moral thought can be used as justification for for immoral behavior.
Some people feel that more emphasis needs to be places on the way moral development is assessed.
some of Kohlbergs’ hypothetical stories are too hard to score.
DIT ( defining issues test) by James Rest
attempts to determine which moral issues individuals feel are more critical in a given situation.
Some people believe that his test is not universal as he claims.
The 1st four stages of his theory have been found to be cross-cultural in studies.
Stages 5 and 6 have not been found in all cultures.
Kohlberg’s theory does not recognize that the higher-level of moral reasoning of certain cultures is culture specific.
Carol Gilligan argues that Kolhberg does not reflect relationships and concern for others.
he is a justice perspective rather than a care perspective
She also believes that there is a difference in gender, however no studies have supported her claim. |
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Term
| What are conventional rules vs. moral/ethical rules? |
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Definition
* Social conventional reasoning
- focuses on thoughts about social consensus and convention.
- created to control behavioral irregularities and maintain the social system.
- they are arbitrary and subject to individual judgment.
- somewhat like social norms - they are known, but up to the individual to follow
- Involve concepts of social organization
* Moral rules
- not arbitrary or determined by whim.
- they are obligatory, widely accepted and somewhat impersonal.
- violation of moral rules affronts ethical standards that exist apart from social consensus and convention.
- They involve concepts of justice |
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Term
| What is the personal domain? How is it different from moral and conventional? |
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Definition
| –Personal: not guided by social norms (own body, privacy, choice of friends and activities) |
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Term
| What is prosocial behavior? What is altruism? Forgiveness? |
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Definition
* Prosocial behavior
- Positive moral behavior. Pro social behavior is doing things to help others, encourage moral behavior in society.
* Altruism
- An unselfish interest in helping another person.
- found throughout the world and is a guiding principle in christianity.
- altruism by adolescents is most likely to happen when they have an empathetic or sympathetic emotion for an individual in need or a close relationship with the benefactor.
* Forgiveness
- an aspect of prosocial behavior that occurs when the injured person releases the injurer from possible behavioral retaliation. |
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Term
| What are the gender differences between males and females in regards to empathy and altruistic acts? |
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Definition
* Girls view themselves as more prosocial and engage in more prosocial behavior than males during adolescence.
* Biggest difference occurred for kind and considerate behavior, with a smaller difference in sharing. |
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Term
| What are some attributes of models that are more likely to be imitated? |
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Definition
–1. Characteristics of model: more influenced by people perceive as similar
•Charismatic, attractive models copied
•unattractive models ignored
•what models available (TV, internet expanded)
–2. Attributes of the observer: feelings of incompleteness (inferiority?) or highly dependent people rewards for conforming
–3. Reward consequences associated with a behavior: more likely to emulate a behavior if believe rewards |
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Term
| What 3 virtues did Balsi say are important to moral identity? |
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Definition
1. Willpower (self-control)
2. Integrity
3. Moral desire |
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Term
| What are the 3 forms of parental discipline? Which has been found to be most effective in enhancing moral development? |
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Definition
–Love withdrawal
–Power assertion
-Induction - Uses reason and explanation of the consequences of others of the adolescent’s actions. Most effective. |
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Term
| What are some characteristics of parents of moral children (what do they do to foster morality)? |
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Definition
–A recent research view concluded that, in general, moral children tend to have parents who (Eisenberg & Valiente, 2002, p. 134):
•Are warm and supportive rather than punitive.
•Use inductive discipline.
•Provide opportunities for the children to learn about others’ perspectives and feelings.
•Involve children in family decision making and in the process of thinking about moral decisions.
•Model moral behaviors and thinking themselves, and provide opportunities for their children to do so.
•Provide information about what behaviors are expected and why.
•Foster an internal rather than an external sense of morality. |
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Term
| What is cocooning vs. pre-arming? |
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Definition
•Cocooning
–When parents protect adolescents from exposure to deviant behavior, and thus the temptation to engage in negative moral behavior.
•Pre-arming
–Anticipating conflicting values and preparing adolescents to handle them. |
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Term
| What are the different ways schools can teach morality? |
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Definition
–The Hidden Curriculum
•Conveyed by the moral atmosphere that is a part of every school.
–Character Education
•Teaching students a basic moral literacy to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves or others (Arthur, 2008; Carr, 2008).
–Values Clarification
•Helping people to clarify what is important to them, what is worth working for, and what purpose their lives are to serve.
–Cognitive Moral Education
•A concept based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops.
–Service Learning |
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Term
| What is service learning and what are the benefits? Who engages in more boys or girls? |
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Definition
-A form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community
-Goal is to help adolescents become (1) less self-centered and (2) more inclined to help others.
-Most effective when two conditions are met:
1. Giving students some degree of choice in the service activities in which they participate
2. providing students opportunity to reflect about their participation
-Studies show that adolescent girls participate more than adolescent boys |
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Term
| What are some factors that increase and decrease likelihood of cheating? |
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Definition
–Ways to Reduce
•Make sure students are aware of what constitutes as cheating
•Consequences for cheating
•Close monitoring
•Emphasize importance of being moral
•Honor Code |
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Term
| How have college-age students’ values/goals changed compared to previous generations? |
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Definition
•increased concern for personal well-being
•decreased concern for the well-being of others, especially for the disadvantaged. (Pryor & others, 2007). |
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Term
| What are some positive outcomes of spirituality? |
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Definition
•Linked with positive outcomes for adolescents and emerging adults (King & Benson, 2009).
•Plays a role in adolescents’ health and whether they engage in problem behaviors (King & Roeser, 2009).
•Many religious adolescents and emerging adults also internalize their religion’s message about caring and concern for people (Ream & Savin-Williams, 2003). |
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Term
| What influence do parents have on adolescent religiousity/spirituality? |
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Definition
•Introduce certain beliefs to children.
•Ensure that they will carry on a religious tradition.
•Adults tend to adopt the religious teachings of their upbringing.
•If a religious change or reawakening occurs, it is most likely to take place during adolescence.
•It is important to consider the quality of the parent-adolescent relationship and whether mothers or fathers are more influential (Granqvist & Dickie, 2006; Ream & Savin-Williams, 2003).
•Adolescents who have a positive relationship with their parents or are securely attached to them are likely to adopt their parents’ religious affiliation. |
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Term
| What is a cult? How are the different from other groups? |
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Definition
•Described as being controlled by a charismatic leader:
•Fostering the idea that there is only one correct set of beliefs and practices.
•Demanding unquestionable loyalty and obedience.
•Using mind-control techniques.
•Using deception and deceit in recruiting and interacting with the outside world.
•Exploiting members’ labor and finances (Galanter, 2000).
•The ultimate goal of the group (Cialdini & Rhoad, 1999).
•Established religions and altruistic movements focus outward, attempting to better the lives of members as well as non-members.
•Cults direct their energies inward rather than outward, serving their own purposes and those of the cult’s leader.
•Religions and altruistic movements usually do not involve overbearing authoritarian control by a leader, the use of deception in recruiting members, coercive influence techniques, or the replacement of a recruit’s identity with a new identity that would not have been freely chosen by the individual before joining the group. |
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Term
| What impact does the marriage relationship have on parenting and children’s outcomes? |
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Definition
* marriage satisfaction is positively correlated with good parenting.
* Marriage is an important support for parenting. When parents report more intimacy and better communication, they also are more affectionate to their children and adolescents. |
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Term
| How can parents act as managers? How is this beneficial? |
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Definition
* Parents can act as managers by monitoring the social relationships and acting as social initiators and arrangers for their adolescents.
* Effective managers find information, make contacts, help structure choices, and provide guidance
* Family Management practices are positively related to grades and self-responsibility and negatively related to school-related problems
* a lack of adequate parental monitoring is the parental factor more related to juvenile delinquency. |
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Term
| What are the 4 parenting styles? Which is most effective? |
|
Definition
* Authoritarian Parenting:
- restrictive, punitive style
- My way or the highway
- the authoritarian parent places firm limits and controls on the adolescent and allows little verbal exchange.
* Authoritative Parenting
- encourages adolescents to be independent, but still places limits and controls on their actions.
- extensive verbal give and take is allowed and parents are warm and nurturant toward the adolescent.
* Neglectful parenting
- the parent is very uninvolved.
- adolescents whose parents are neglectful develop the sense that other aspects of the parents’ lives are more important than they are.
* Indulgent Parenting
- parents are highly involved, but they place few demands or control on their children.
- they allow their adolescents to do what they want.
* Authoritative is the best style of parenting. It is associated with adolescents’ socially competent behavior. |
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Term
| What is co-parenting? What are the positive outcomes for children of effective co-parenting? |
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Definition
| * Coparenting is when parents work together. They act in combination having the same views on discipline and reward. They have solidarity in their parenting styles and cooperate with each other. |
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Term
| What are some problems associated with long-term intense parent-adolescent conflict? |
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Definition
* parent-adolescent conflict is associated with a number of adolescent problems, including moving way from home, juvenile delinquency, school drop out rates, pregnancy and early marriage, membership in religious cults, and drug abuse.
* Conflict has also been linked with higher level of internalizing behaviors such as depression and externalizing behaviors such as delinquency in Latino families. |
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Term
| What are the traits of runaways? |
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Definition
* This varies across cultural and SES boundaries
- many are from families in which a parent of adult beats them or sexually abuses them.
- children whose parents may be drug addicts or alcoholics.
- children whose parents cannot feed or clothe them adequately
- teenage lovers confronted by parental hostility
- teenagers who are fed up with their hypocritical parents
- a teen that feels he or she will be happier somewhere other than home. |
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Term
| What the different types of attachment? What are the adult outcomes of each? |
|
Definition
* Dismissing / avoidant attachment
- an insecure type of attachment.
- individuals deemphasize the importance of attachment.
- can occur due to rejection from caregivers.
* Preoccupied / ambivalent
- also an insecure type of attachement
- parents are inconsistently available to the adolescent
- adolescents are hyperattuned to attachment experiences.
* Unresolved /disorganized
- insecure
- adolescent has an unusually high level of fear and might be disoriented.
- can results from traumatic experiences.
* Secure
- attachment pattern in which infants use their primary caregiver, as a secure base from which to explore the environment
- an important foundation for psychological development.
* Insecure
- infants either avoid the caregiver or show considerable resistance to difficulties in relationships and problem later in development. |
|
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Term
| How is attachment measured? |
|
Definition
* Observation
- sometimes they will bring infants and their mothers in and observe how the infant acts when the mother is in the room, when the mother leaves /and is gone, and when the mother comes back into the room.
* Studies also have participants do an adult attachment interview. they classify their attachment style based on their answers on the AAI. |
|
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Term
| What are the benefits of secure attachment? |
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Definition
* Secure attachment provides a foundation for psychological development.
* Secure children are generally able to develop successfully later in life.
* Attachment early in life can help with later relationships. |
|
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Term
| What are some typical traits of First borns compared to younger siblings? What did Adler say about birth order (which did he think was most successful?) |
|
Definition
* First borns are dominant in sibling interaction
* they feel more resentful that parents give preferential treatment to younger siblings.
* they are the most intelligent, achieving, and conscientious.
* more adult oriented, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled
* Adler believed the middle child is the most likely to be successful |
|
|
Term
| What percentage of divorced kids have problems adjusting? What are some of these potential problems? |
|
Definition
* 20-25% of children in divorced families have problems adjusting.
* problems in academia, externalized and internalized problems.
* be less socially responsible, have less competent intimate relationships
* drop out of school
* become sexually active earlier.
* to take drugs
* associate with antisocial peers
* have lower self-esteem. |
|
|
Term
| What are some ways to minimize the negative effects of divorce? |
|
Definition
-divorced parents have a harmonious relationship
-use authoritative parenting
-Secure attachment |
|
|
Term
| How does divorce affect income of mothers and fathers? |
|
Definition
•custodial mothers’ income decreases about 25 to 50 percent
•only 10 percent for custodial fathers (Emery, 1999).
•Divorced mothers
•increased workloads
•high rates of job instability
•moves to less desirable neighborhoods and inferior schools |
|
|
Term
| What is boundary ambiguity? |
|
Definition
| The uncertainty in stepfamilies about who is in or out of the family and who is performing or responsible for certain tasks in the family system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| These are children whose parents work or are otherwise not home when the children come home from school, so they are given a house key to let themselves in. |
|
|
Term
| How have adoptive parents changed over time? |
|
Definition
-Shift from primarily white middle to upper class married
-To increase diversity - including single, gay, no income requirement |
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