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Psych 240-Spring 09 Exam 2
Exam 2
129
Psychology
Undergraduate 4
06/03/2009

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Memory for Pictures study: Shepard
Definition

-Subjects studied 612 pictures for as long as they wanted

-test immediately, after 2 hours, 3days, 1 week, and 4 months 

 

-Results

-Immediately and after 2 hours: virtually perfect

-1 week: 87% correct

-after 3 months: still above 50%

Term
STM/WM
Definition

-Small capacity (7 +/- two"chunks")

-short duration (seconds)

-what youre thinking about right now

Term
LTM
Definition

-very large capacity (no known limit)

-very long duration (lifetime)

-you dont have to be thinking about it right now

Term
Short term memory
Definition

-older concept

-emphasizes passive storage of information

-memory for a small amount of info for a few seconds

Term
working memory
Definition

-newer concept (developed out of STM models)

-emphasizes both storage and active processing of info

-memory for small amount of info for a few seconds 

Term
WM: Lab tasks
Definition

-digit span/spatial span

-delayed recognition

-backward digit/spatial span

-reading span

Term
Digit span/backward digit span
Definition

-hear a series of digits, immediately repeat back in order OR in reverse order

-number of digits to repeat increases on each trial until subject can no longer repeat back correctly 

 

Digit Span= highest number of digits subject can repeat back without error

Term
Spatial Span/Backward spatial span
Definition
-Corsi Block test: have to tap the blocks on screen in the correct order as the experimenter did (or reverse order)
Term
Delayed recognition task 
Definition

1. Encoding: present letters

2. Retention (1-20sec)

3. Retrieval: was this letter there?

Term
Reading Span
Definition

-read a series of sentences out loud, then recall the last word of each sentence in order

-reading span: highest number of words subject can repeat back without error

Term
Double Dissociations 
Definition

-evidence for the independence of two systems

Ex: System A-Task 1, System B-Task 2

-lesion A, impair task 1

-lesion B, impair task 2

Term
Anterograde Amnesia
Definition

-inability to recall info aquired AFTER brain injury

-cant form new LTM

-Ex: 50 first dates 

Term
Retrograde amnesia 
Definition

-inability to recall info aquired BEFORE brain injury

-cant remember your past 

Term

Patient H.M.

 

Definition

-neurobiological evidence 

-Anterograde amnesia

-impaired LTM, normal working memory

-a SINGLE dissociation 

Term
Why single dissociations do not work
Definition

-Amber got an A in Psych 240

-Ben got a C in Psych 240

-Both students got an A in psych 111

 

-Because Ben did well is psych 111 but not psych 240 means these classes require different skills =WRONG

Term
Patient K.F.
Definition

-normal LTM

-impaired working memory

Term
Double Dissociation for WM and LTM
Definition

-single dissociation 1= Patient H.M.

-single dissociation 2= Patient K.F.

-Double dissociation

-established independence of WM and LTM

Term
Serial position curve experiment
Definition

-listen to 15 words then write down in any order (free recall task)

 

-Percent recalled: high for first word, then drops, then high for last words

 

-primacy=first words (LTM)

-recency= most recent words heard (WM)

Term
Serial Position curve experiment #2
Definition

-listen to 20/30 words

-count backwards for 30 sec from 100 by 3's

-Now, write the 20 words in any order

 

-percent recalled: primacy lower than when tested immediately, and no increase for recency words

Term
Serial position curve experiment #3
Definition

-Listen to 20 words presented quickly, try to remember

-write down in any order

 

-listen to 20 words presented slowly

-write down in any order

Term
A behavioral double dissociation for Wm and LTM
Definition

-Delay before test: WM tasks (recency)

-Presentation rate: LTM tasks (primacy)

Term
Baddeley's WM model
Definition

-two info storage buffers:

-phonological loop (stores info in speech like form)

-visuospatial sketch pad (stores visual and spatial info)

 

-Central executive

-computational operations on info

-allocation of attention to taks

-acts on info in the storage buffers 

Term
The phonological loop
Definition
Auditory speech inputs-->Phonological short-term store-->non auditory inputs--> articulatory loop (subvocal rehearsal process)
Term
phonological buffer
Definition

-info storage site

-buffer capacity is 5-9 chunks

-without rehearsal, info decays from the buffer in 2 seconds

Term
articulatory loop
Definition

-like a "tape loop"

-re-circulates/refreshes/rehearses the contents of phonological buffer

-recodes non-auditory (visual) info into phonological code

-can hold 2 sec worth of info (however much you can say to yourself)

Term
Phonological coding
Definition

-info coded in the form of speech bases sounds

 

Phoneme: sound unit of language

Term
Acoustic similarity experiment
Definition

-two kinds of lists: confusable, non confusable

-confusion occurs if words sound alike

-NO confusion for similar looking words

-NO confusion for similar meaning

Term
Articulatory supression
Definition

-prevents formation of phonological code

-inhibits the subvocal rehearsal process

 

-ex: repeatedly say "the"

 

-With articulatory supression: lower accuracy, and acoustic confusion effect DISAPEARS 

Term
word lenght and speed of speech 
Definition

Word length: memory span better for short words than longer words

 

speed: memory span better for words pronounced quickly, for people who speak quickly, and in languages where words are pronounced quickly 

Term
Phonological loops limits
Definition

-time effects due to decay

-chunking effects due to capacity of store

 

-time effects due to speed of rehearsal 

Term
visuospatial sketchpad
Definition
-used to store visual or spatial info for a short amount of time (mental imagery)
Term
PET subtraction: rehearsal 
Definition

-give delayed response task, measure memory condition and control condition

 

-PET activation in delayed response minus PET activation in control task = brain areas related to phonological rehearsal 

Term
WM and brain areas 
Definition

Phonological WM (left hemisphere)

-articulatory loop: Brocas area

-phonological store: Inferior parietal lobe

 

Visuospatial WM (right hemisphere)

-inferior frontal

-occipital 

Term

Frontal lobe syndrome

 

Definition

-distractability, difficulty concentrating

-perseveration: fail to inhibit inappropriate behavior

-problems with organization, planning

Term
explicit memory
Definition

-conscious recollection

-declarative knowledge (knowing "that")

-episodic (personal experiences)

-semantic (facts)

Term
implicit memory
Definition

-unconscious change in performance

-procedural knowledge (knowing "how"

-priming

-classical conditioning (the office altoid exp.)

Term
explicit memory tests
Definition

-direct

-require subject to make explicit reference to previous study or learning

-learning is tested through recall, and recognition

Term
implicit memory tests
Definition

-indirect

-tests do NOT make explicit reference to previous study or learning

-learning is tested through changes in performance

Term
psychogenic amnesia
Definition

-relatively rare in the real world

-due to psychological, not physical harm

-retrograde (cant remember before)

Term
organic amnesia 
Definition

-amnesia due to head injury, etc.

-anterograde (cant remember after injury)

Term
Clive Wearing
Definition

-lives in the present only

-music can extend his period of consciousness

-anterograde amnesia and nearly complete retrograde amnesia for episodes

-no new memories

-cant remember people except for wife

-no episodic memory

-some retrograde semantic memory in tact 

Term
Korsakoff's amnesia 
Definition

-causes severe anterograde amnesia

-damage to the mammillary bodies associated with chronic alcoholism

-confabulation (making things up) is a common symptom

Term
Mirror reading study 
Definition

-Participants: Korsokoff's amnesics and NA versus normal

 

-Methods: experiment included 50% repeated words across 4 days

-non-repeated words: implicit

-repeated words: implicit + explicit

 

-Results: new words (improved the same, implicit)

old words (normal better than amnesics, implicit + explicit)

Term
Tower of hanoi 
Definition

-test number of moves to reach solution

-amnesics and control performed similarly 

Term
Priming
Definition

-(one type of implicit memory)

-a previous encounter with info facilitates later performance on the same info

-facilitation in the processing of a stimulus as a function of a recent encounter with same stimulus 

-can occur even if there is no conscious recollection of having encountered the info before 

Term
Priming experiment: word fragment completion
Definition

-priming=complete more old fragments than new

-result: amnesics show normal priming, but poor recognition memory (they dont remember having seen the words)

Term
Intact priming in amnesia (test results)
Definition

-Korsokoffs impaired on free and cued recall tests (explicit tests)

-perform like normal subjects on word stem completion test: measures priming (implicit tests)

Term
PET study of Explicit/Implicit memory 
Definition

-subjects given word list, and word stem list

-Explicit test: say the word from the list that began with that stem

-Implicit test: say the first word that comes to mind

 

-explicit results: hippocampus and frontal lobe activity increased

-implicit results: posterior visual area activity decreased

Term
Rajaram & Roediger: Experiment #1
Definition

-study list of words (half visually, half auditorally)

-half subjects get explicit memory test (visually presented, yes-no recognition test)

-half subjects get implicit test (word stem completion test, tests priming)

 

-results: modality of presentation affects implicit memory performance, but not explicit 

Term
Explicit task
Definition

-Explicit test phase: visually presented, yes-no recognition test

-Result: no difference in performance for words that had been visually presented and words that had an auditory presentation

Term
Implicit task
Definition

-implicit test phase: visually presented priming test. subjects had to name the word as fast as possible

 

-results: faster at naming the word if the word had been visually presented (same modality as test phase)--priming results when the word appears in same modality 

Term
Depth of processing
Definition

-words can be encoded at different depths (levels)

-physical appearance of letters

-acoustic sound of word

-semantic meaning of word

 

-deeper encoding=easier to remember

Term
Rajaram & Roediger: Experiment #2
Definition

-half subjects do deep encoding task

-rate each word for pleasantness 

-word meaning must be processes

 

-half subjects do a shallow encoding

-respond with words that rhyme

-no need to process meaning

 

-Subjects given a memory test, half get explicit, half get implicit

 

-results: deep processing have better accuracy at explicit task than shallow processing

-no affect of level of processing on implicit test

Term
semantic memory
Definition

-general knowledge about the world, facts

-not tied to a specific time and place (not episodic)

-organized as a hierarchy of concepts/categories (like files on a computer) 

Term
The teachable language comprehender model (TLC)
Definition

-Goal: design a computer model that can understand language

-developed memory structure, answers general knowledge questions

-wanted the model to be able to verify sentences that require general knowledge about the world

Term
TLC structural assumptions 
Definition

-each "node" a concept

-nodes connected to other nodes, organized hierarchically

-features of each concept connected to each node

-properties stored at highest level ("can fly" with bird not robin)

Term
TLC model: processing
Definition

-model searches through knowledge by "traversing" across links between concepts

-more links=more time

-model responds "true" if category membership or properties can be directly confirmed

-model responds "false" if direct conflict with a property, or category membership is mutally exclusive 

Term
TLC model: predictions 
Definition

-if model is organized like human memory, then questions that require to traverse more links in memory should take longer to respond to 

 

-category judgements, more links=more time

"shark is animal" longer than "shark is a fish"

 

-property judgements longer than category

Term
TLC: summary of evidence
Definition

-distance effect: items separated by more links take more time to verify

 

-property judgements take longer to verify than category judgements

Term
TLC problems 
Definition

-Reverse distance effect

-typicality effect 

Term
Basic Level
Definition
-when asked to name features or say what features have in common, easy with basic level (chair), hard with other levels (furniture)
Term
Spreading Activation model 
Definition

-revised TLC

-concepts represented as nodes

-associations (links) bw concepts vary in strength

(strength represented by distance bw nodes)

(similar concepts are close together)

-concepts NOT organized hierarchically

-links bw concepts labeled 

Term
Spreading activation model: processing
Definition

-nodes activated, spread to adjacent nodes

-can explain the reverse distance effect and typicality effects(typical words are closer to the concept node)

Term
Semantic priming
Definition

-evidence for spreading activation model

-prime activates "doctor" node,

-activation spreads to "nurse" node,

-"nurse" node already activated so fast response 

Term
Evidence for categories in the brain
Definition

-category specific defecits of living things and non-living things

-alternative explanation: property based organization 

Term
Property-based organization in the brain
Definition

-semantic knowledge for diff properties stored in brain regions that process that type of info

-rep of living things based on visual prop.

-rep of non-living things based on functional prop.

-apparent category-specific deficit arise from damage to brain regions that represent either visual or functional properties 

Term
Encoding
Definition

-How stuff makes it into episodic memory

 

-Factors that influence encoding:

1. attention

2. processing for meaning

3. self-generation

4. spacing

5. organization

Term
Effects of divided attention on encoding
Definition

-subjects memorized lists of 15 auditorily presented words under:

-full attention (no secondary task) or divided attention (do a visually presented choice RT task)

-after a delay, memory tested using free recall

 

Results: less attention-->poor encoding-->poor memory

Term
Levels of Processing theory 
Definition

-encoding is an automatic byproduct of attending to and processing a stimulus

-the more deeply we process, the better encoded

 

-shallow: analysis of superficial features

 

-deep: analysis of stimulus meaning and connection of meaning to other knowledge in memory= elaborative processing

Term
Levels of processing evidence
Definition

-Task: learn word lists

-Two independent variables: type of encoding (intentional/incedental) and depth of stimulus processing (shallow/deep)

-memory tested using free recall task

 

Results: Intention to memorize NOT important, depth of stimulus processing important 

Term
The spacing effect
Definition

-memory is better when encoding is spaced than when it is massed

 

Term
Organization evidence (Bower et al)
Definition

-Task: learn a list of 112 words, from 4 categories

 

-Two groups:

1. words presented in organized trees

2. words presented in random trees

 

-resluts: better remember if organized 

Term
The self generation effect 
Definition
-info that you generate yourself is encoded more effectively
Term
factors that influence retrieval from episodic memory
Definition

-external context (context dependent effect)

-internal states (state-dependent effect)

Term
context-dependent effect
Definition

-retrieval is better when the physical environment of retrieval matches that when you encoded 

 

-deep sea divers learn 20 auditory words

-two independent variables:

1. study context: on land/under water

2. test context: on land/under water

 

results: recall better when learning and testing contexts are the same 

Term
state dependent effect
Definition

-retrieval better when a person in the same state

 

-learn new words while stoned/sober

 

results:

-overall sober did better 

-those who studied stoned did much better when tested stoned 

Term
schemas 
Definition

-knowledge of what is involved in  particular experience/situation

-stored in semantic memory

-similar to semantic network, but more task oriented

Term
scripts
Definition

-a type of schema

-a sequence of actions that describes an activity 

Term
scripts/schemas and episodic memory
Definition

-scripts/schemas can enhance memory or distort memory

-semantic memory influences episodic memory

-washing clothes study 

Term
washing clothes study 
Definition

-read stories like "washing clothes"

-Three conditions:

1. not shown title

2. shown title before reading

3. shown title after reading

-recall story 

 

-better recall when shown title before

Term
Balloon study 
Definition

-same as washing clothes study except instead of title, some subjects are shown a drawing that explains story 

 

-results: the illustration only helped when presented BEFORE the text

-means that schema must be influencing encoding

Term
conclusion of Bransford & johnson 
Definition

-schema is activated in semantic memory if subjects see title/picture before reading

 

-schema improves encoding by improving comprehension (deeper processing) and organized framework

Term
Schemas and memory distortion
Definition

-participants seated in office waiting for experiment, taken into diff room, then asked to write down what they saw in the office

 

-results: people remembered objects consistent with an "office schema"

-false memory for things that were not in office but are in an "office schema"

Term
conclusion from office schema experiment 
Definition

-prior knowledge (scripts/schemas) influence episodic memory

-memory is constructive

-semantic and episodic memory interact

Term
Reproductive memory 
Definition

-accurate, rote production of info from memory

-more likely to occur with simple materials (letters, digits)

Term
constructive memory
Definition

-the active process of filling in missing elements or otherwise transforming info while remembering

-more likely to occur with material rich in meaning 

Term
constructive nature of memory experiment 
Definition

-subjects read native american folk tale and asked to recall story 

 

-subjects made story more coherent within their own cultural framework

-three types of errors (omit info, distort facts, add details) increased with more time between story and recall 

Term
Allport and Postman prejudice subway study 
Definition

-subjects viewed picture and told person next to them what they saw

-results: final reports said black man instead of white man was holding the razor 

Term
Bransford & Franks
Definition

-stimuli remembered are complex sentences:

"the girl who lives next door broke the large window on the porch"

 

-study phase: 4 types of sentences presented (1,2,3,4 ideas per sentence)

 

-recognition phase: two diff types of sentences presented (old/new)

-varied the number of ideas in the test sentences (1-4)

 

 

Term
Bransford & Franks Results 
Definition

-equal confidence for old/new sentences

-more ideas, more confidence

 

-memory of info is never verbatum

-summarize content and integrate details into higher-order units (constructive)

-extract general meaning and discard the details 

Term
Infrences can distort memory 
Definition

-people tent to remember inferences they made as if they were actually explicitly stated or as if they actually occurred 

-true for logical and pragmatic 

Term
types of inferences 
Definition

-inference: going beyond available evidence to form a conclusion

 

-logical (deductive): a conclusion that MUST follow from the available evidence

 

-pragmatic (inductive): a conclusion invited by the evidence but not logically demanded

Term
Advertising experiment 
Definition

-saw assertion and implication commercial

-1/2 of subjects that saw implication commercial claimed they heard the commercial make an explicit assertion (they didnt)

Term
eye-witnesses 
Definition

-the questions eyewitnesses are asked about an event can alter their memory for that event

-old info is overwritten by new info (from misleading questions)

-old info is compltely gone from LTM

 

-Loftus misinformation tests:

-smashed vs hit

-yield vs stop sign

Term
Test of overwriting hammer experiment
Definition
-hammer is NOT overwritten by screwdriver
Term
Co-existence/misinformation acceptance hypothesis 
Definition

-misinformation is incorporated into memory representation for event

-accurate info remains and co-exists with misinfo

-misinfo effect is due to SOURCE CONFUSION

Term
The cognitive interview technique 
Definition

-start with open-ended questions

-reinstate conditions (original context)

-allow witness to tell story without interruption

-use reverse order for specific questions (reduce possibility of inferences)

Term
Police line-ups
Definition

-sequential presentations, NOT simultaneous 

-simultaneous encourages relative comparison

-sequential reduces false ID

Term
hypnosis
Definition

-not a good technique

-witnesses anxious to cooperate so generate lots of info even if its not accurate 

-Loftus misinfo effects increase under hypnosis 

Term
legal memory 
Definition
-
Term
Brain fingerprinting
Definition

-Event related potentions (ERP)

-guilty knowledge technique: only criminal has memories from crime, getaway car was a Chevy

-guilty knowledge will cause P300

Term
Memory for words (shepard)
Definition

-600 words studied as long as they wanted

-tested immediately and after 3 days 

 

-results: word recall tested immediately the same accuracy of picture recall tested 1 week later

-word recall tested at 3 days same as picture recall tested at 4months 

Term
Memory for pictures (Standing)
Definition

-estimated if shown 1,000,000 picutres, could remember 730,000 of them 2 days later 

 

-verbal memory much more limited 

Term
Visual memory penny experiment 
Definition

-Experiment 1: draw each side of penny from memory (only 1 accurately recalled)

 

-Experiment 2: recognition, only 50% who got accurate drawing correctly recognized it 

Term
When is visual memory poor?
Definition

-for unimportant and unattended details 

-when stimuli lack meaning or relavence

-when alternatives (incorrect choices) are similar 

 

-Need to attend to details, meaningfulness of details, and distinctive alternative 

Term
Richer code hypothesis 
Definition

-visual code has more info than verbal code, so visual memory is better than verbal memory 

-more details result in more connections to other things in memory 

Term
evidence against the richer code hypothesis 
Definition

-4 stimulus conditions

-memory test: old/new recognition test

-immediately and 7 weeks after 

 

-results:

-memory for all 3 picture types better than memory for verbal descriptions

-no difference between 3 visual conditions (suggests amount of detail isnt critical factor)

Term
Dual code hypothesis 
Definition

-we use both verbal and nonverbal codes to represent visual info 

 

-visual material usually represented with both visual and verbal code

-verbal only have verbal code 

Term
Dual code evidence 
Definition

-concrete words (verbal and nonverbal code) are remembered better than abstract words (only verbal code)

 

-method of loci: associating visual images with verbal info 

Term
Dual code: explains why visual memory is sometimes bad
Definition

-bad for unattended details because we dont create a verbal code for those, lose dual-code advantage

 

-bad for when incorrect alternative are similar

-visual code doesnt help distinguish them from correct alternative

-have to rely on verbal code 

Term
Konkle, Brady, Alvarez and Olivia exp
Definition

-3 conditions in recognition test:

-lure item is novel

-lure item is exemplar from the same category

-lure item is the same as the picture you saw but in a different "state"

 

-objects remembered nearly as well in exemplar and state conditions as in novel condition 

 

-verbal code must carry deep conceptual meaning, cannot just be a word

Term
Cognitive map
Definition

-internal representation of our physical environment that store the spatial features of the external world

 

-rats in maze: rat given no reinforcement for first 10 days, but reinforced after 11th day

-wondered aimlessly, but when given reinforcement learned the maze right away

-must have used a cognitive map

 

Term
Heuristics 
Definition

-weaknesses of cognitive maps

-mental shortcuts that can distort our cognitive maps

 

-right angle bias

-symmetry 

-rotation

-alignment

-relative position

-subjective clusters 

Term
visual imagery processes 
Definition

-generation

-maintenance

-transformation

-inspection 

 

-visual imagery is seeing in the absence of the appropriate sensory input

-"perception" of remembered info

Term
why we use visual imagery 
Definition

-retrieval of info about object properties from memory

-will this container fit in the fridge? will the car fit in that spot?

Term
propositional theory 
Definition

-all mental representations are in the form of abstract propositions

-proposition=deep meaning

-we recreate verbal and visual codes FROM propositions (words and images are epiphenomena)

Term
predicate calculus
Definition

-one way to represent propositions

-describes logical relationships between entities 

-basic form: 

[relationship] [subject, object]

 

-ex: On (Cat, Table)

Term
The Depictive view of visual imagery 
Definition
-visual imagery will act like visual perception (the functional-equivalence hypothesis)
Term
Evidence against the Depictive view
Definition

-imagery isnt just like perception:

-hard to reinterpret ambiguous figures using imagery

-images dont have metric properties

-hard to determine part-whole relationships using imagery 

Term
Interference effects of perception and imagery 
Definition

if perception and imagery tasks interfere then they must require the same mental system 

 

 

Term
functional equivalence
Definition

-we represent and use mental images in ways that are analagous to our representations and uses of perceptions

 

-image scanning and scaling experiments

-mental rotation experiments 

Term
Image scanning 
Definition

-study pictures, memorize them

-ask to focus on one end of the picture

-Results: RT to find far object parts longer than RT to find near

-suggests "scanning" the image

-demonstration of functional equivalence: we scan mental images like we scan real images 

Term
demand characteristics 
Definition

-experimenter's expectancies about how subjects are going to perform create an implicit demand for subjects to perform as expected 

 

But...

-if you tell experiments to expect something diff, still get original outcome

-if you tell subjects to expect something diff, still get original outcome 

Term
Image zooming
Definition

-subjects faster to answer questions about visual properties in the NEAR condition than in FAR condition

-demonstration of functional equivalence: details on near objects easier to see than details on far objects

Term
Mental rotation
Definition

-judge if 2 3-D objects are the same or diff

-3 conditions: match 2-D rotation, match 3-D rotation, or no match

 

-demonstration of functional equivalence:

-takes longer to rotate objects at larger angles (doesnt matter if in plane or in depth) 

-both for real objects and mental images of objects

Term
evidence for the Depictive viea 
Definition

-interference effects

-size judgements

- Functional equiv. (scanning, zooming, rotation)

Term
Compromise Theory 
Definition

1. basic code is propositional (for long term storage)

2. propositional code used to create depictive image

3. depictive image can be scanned, zoomed, etc

Term
PET study for visual/mental imagery 
Definition

-had subjects do a visual imagery task and a visual perception

-brain activity in visual (occipital) cortex for BOTH perception and imagery (share common mechanism)

-more processing required to create an image than to perceive it

Term
Image generation: objects 
Definition

-fMRI study: perceive or imagine faces of buildings

-Results: ventral temporal lobe activation for perception and imagery for both types of objects 

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