1. subjective spirit - others dont know your reality

2. dynamic - drift in and out of states constantly

3. self-reflective - YOU are the one conscious

4. selective attention - focuses awareness on some stimuli to the exclusion of others (whatever is most illuminate at the moment)

1. conscious - aware thoughts/perceptions

2.preconscious - outside of your awareness but can easily be called back into awareness

3. unconscious - cant be brought into awareness under normal conditions (repressed - and can affect behavior according to Freud)

conscious processing - consciousness use of attention and effort

slower than autonomic processing

unconscious processing - performed without conscious awareness (usually routine actions)

disadvantages - we dont find new solutions to problems

but facilitates divided attention - the capacity to perform multiple tasks at once

cant perceive shape, size, orientation of objects

propagonsia - can recognize objects visually but not faces

exposure to a stimuli influences how to repsond to the same or another stimuli

also known as subliminal stimuli

serves as a summarizing function (internal/external stimuli) making it available for planning and decision making. 

allows us to deal with novel (new) situations and plan response to them

1. visual cortex -> parietal lobe - info to support unconscious movement guidance

2. visual cortex ->temporal lobe - info for conscious object recongition

3. consciousness - prefrontal cortex & other brain areas

4. global workspace/working memory - unified activity of multiple modules in diff. brain areas but we experience it as unitary. modules process info parallel (independently)

daily biological cycles

genetically programmed cycle of activity and inactivity (linked to the pineal gland that produces melotonin - relaxing hormone which increases at night, making you tired, and decreases during the day)

environmental cues also help keep SCN on a 24 hour cycle

natural wake-sleep cycle without day and night.

averages out at 24.2 hours 

happens when you live in a dark area (like a cave?)

awake and alert

high frequency but low amplitude (height)

relaxed and drowsy

low frequency

theta waves (light sleep) - dreams, vivid images, sudden body jerks

sleep spindles (bursts of rapid brain activity lasts 1-2 sec.) - more relaxed muscles, slower breathing/heart rate, mumble/talk

stage 3 - delta waves (slow and large) with time the occur more often and begin to dominate the sleep pattern - pushing you into stage 4 

referred to as slow wave sleep

sleep walking, night terrors, bed wetting

each cycle usually lasts about 90 minutes

Each Cycle is stages : 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1, REM

Rapid eye movements, high arousal (may increase to daytime levels) & frequent dreaming

also called paradoxical sleep - highly aroused but look to be peacefully sleeping

the longer your asleep the longer REM periods last and they eventually will eliminate stages 3 & 4

1. basal forebrain - regulates falling asleep

2. pontine reticular formation - regulates REM sleep

3.  limbic system (amygdala)-active during REM 

4. primary motor cortex is active but signals are blocked

5. visual cortex active (explaining dreams?)

6. lower activity in prefrontal cortex

changes with age

1. sleep less as we become older (19-30 years 7-8 hours, elderly 6 hours)

2. REM decreases during childhood and then remains stable

3. time spent in stages 3 & 4 decreases

4. individual differences

mood suffers most then cognitive and physical performance

perform more poorly but confidence about performance is higher

1. REM rebound - increase amount of REM after being sleep deprived

Why Sleep?

Restoration Model

sleep recharges out run-down bodies and allows us to recover from mental and physical fatigue

Adenosine (cellular waste product) - accumulates while awake (inhibiting brain circuits that keep us awake) causing us to slow down

Why Sleep?

Evolutionary/Circadian Sleep Models

sleeps main purpose is to increase a species chances for survival in the response to environmental demands (predetors, prey, etc.)

mechanism for conserving energy

Why Sleep?

Memory Consolidation

gradual process by which brain transfers information into LTM

REM enhances

contradictions: antidepressants eliminate REM but people show no memory impairments from this

Sleep Disorders

Insomnia

frequent and persistent (chronic) difficulty in falling/staying asleep restfully

possible treatment

stimuli control - associate bed with sleep and no other activities 

daytime sleepiness and sudden/uncontrollable sleep attacks (lasting from 1 min. to 1 hr.)

may go right into REM or stage 4

Cataplexy - sudden loss of muscle tone

loss of muscle tone that cause normal REM sleep paralysis to be absent (acting out their dreams - kicking, etc.)

can led to injuries to spouses

occurs in stage 3 or 4 and makes you unrepsonsive

occurs in 10-30% of kids and less than 5% of adults

treatments : psychotherapy, hypnosis, awaking, usually it cures itself

frightening dreams that arouse sleeper to a near- panic state. 

elevated psychological arousal, heart rate may double or triple

occurs in stages 3 or 4

repeatedly stop and restart breathing during sleep

usually lasts 20-40 sec. but can continue for up to 1-2 min. 

caused by obstruction in upper airways

usually heavy, adult males

Nature of Dreams

hypogenic state

REM dreams are more vivid, bizarre, or story-like than NREM dreams

we dream about familiar settings/scenarios (most of the time)

includes wish fulfillment (gratification of unconscious wants/needs. 

manifest content - surface story

latent content - disguised psychological meaning

theory is highly rejected

Dominant Theory

dreams serve no function and are a byproduct of REM neural activity.

the neural activity is sent to higher up areas but it doesn't match external sensory events and cerebral cortex still tries to interpret it

Critics: overestimate bizarreness of dreams and not enough attention to NREM

1. problem-solving model - dreams aren't constrained to reality so they help us find new creative solutions to problems/concerns (dreams arent focused on personal problems so its not why we dream)

2. cognitive process theory - how we dream and dream/waking thought are produced by same mental systems in the brain. (similar due to rapid shifting of attention)

dreaming involves perceptual, emotional, motivational and cognitive processes. 

Ex. neurocognitive model - cognitive/biological and how various subjective aspects of dreams correspond to physiological changes during sleep

fantasy prone personality (live in rich, vivid fantasy world)

1/3 are women

more vivid than daily though but less vivid than dreams

drugs go through the brain through extensive networks of capillaries (blood-vessels)

blood-brain barrier: special lining of tightly packed cells that lets vital nutrients pass through so neurons can fire. screens out a majority of foreign substances

1. neurotransmitters synthesized in presynaptic neuron and stored in vesicles

2. neurotransmitter is released into synaptic space and bind/stimulate receptor sites on post-synaptic neuron

3. neurotransmitter molecules are deactivated by enzymes/re-uptake 

facilitate synaptic transmission 

increase the activity of neurotransmitters

they may:

1. enhance neurons ability to synthesize, store and release neurotransmitter

2. bind/stimulate with receptor sites (or make it easier for the neurotransmitter)

3. more difficult for neurotransmitters to be deactivated (inhibits re-uptake) 

Drugs and the Brain

Agonists

Example

Opiates and Amphetamines

boost arousal and mood neurons release more dopamine/norepinephrine and inhibit re-uptake (block special channels from being absorbed back) so they remain in the synaptic space to keep stimulating post-synaptic neurons

Drugs and the Brain

Antagonist

inhibit synaptic transmission

decreases action of neurotransmitters

they do this by:

1. reduces neurons ability to synthesize, store, release neurotransmitters

2. prevent neurotransmitters from binding with post-synaptic neuron (blocking receptor sites)

Drugs and the Brain

Antagonist

Example

antipsychotics

fit into receptor sites but dont activate them (blocks presynaptic neuron from firing)

Drugs and the Brain

Tolerance

decreasing responsively to a drug (depends partly on the environment your in)

Drugs and the Brain

Tolerance

Compensatory Responses

1. compensatory responses: reactions opposite to that of the drug (attempting to create homeostasis - state of physiological balance)

2. withdrawal - compensatory responses that continue after drug use has stopped

3. overdose - can occur when drug is taken in an unfamiliar setting (lowering compensatory responses)

Drugs and the Brain

Dependence/Addiction

maladaptive pattern of use that causes a person significant distress or substantially impairs the person life

1. physiological - tolerance/withdrawal symptoms have developed

2. psychological - drug craving due to pleasurable effects (not diagnostic)

Drugs and the Brain

Misconceptions

1. one cannot be dependent without tolerance or withdrawal (neither are needed to diagnose dependence)

2. motivation to avoid or end withdrawal symptoms is cause of addiction (can be dependent w/ low withdrawal affects, people sober for years begin using again)

genetics, personality, religion, culture, family/peers can all be factors in drug use. 

Drugs and the Brain

Depressents

1. alcohol - increases GABA (main inhibitory transmitter), decreases glutamate (major excitatory neurotransmitter) lowers inhibitions because neural slowdown depresses inhibitory control enters. high levels increase dopamine

alcohol myopia - shortsighted thinking caused by inability to pay attention to a variety of information

2. barbiturates/tranquilizers - increases GABA, very addictive. in high doses - initial excitement, slurring, depression, memory impairment, low coordination (cerebellum) 

Drugs and the Brain

Stimulants

increase neural firing and arouse nervous system. raise blood pressure, heart rate, & respiration. 

increased euphoria and possibly irritability

1. amphetamines - increase dopamine/norepineherin, decrease appetite, sleep, fatigue, depression

2. cocaine -increase dopamine/norepineherin (by blocking re-uptake)and muscle strength, excitement, euphoria. 

3. ecstasy (MDMA) - artificial and synthetic, represents meth (stimulant) and mescaline , increase serotonin leds to depression later due to decreased serotonin. long term damage to axon terminals of serotonin releasing neurons (unsure if its permanent)

Drugs and the Brain 

Opiates

from opium poppy. 

pain relief and mood changes (maybe euphoria)

stimulate endorphin receptors

Agonist

Drugs and the Brain

Hallucinogens 

powering mind altering drugs producing hallucinations 

can blur boundaries between reality and fantasy

"flashbacks"

LSD - increases serotonin/dopamine receptor sites

Drugs and the Brain

Marijuana

THC - major active ingredient 

brain produces it own THC like substances (cannabinoids) so it has receptor sites. 

chronic use = increase in GABA (inhibitory neurotransmitter) and dopamine

1. motivational syndrome (unmotivated/apathetic toward everything)

2. leads to more dangerous drugs

3. use has no significant dangers (more cancer causing substances than tobacco)

4. you cant be dependent (5-10% do)

Drugs and the Brain

Determents of Drug Effects

1. Biological - genetic role, some people are predisposed to drug use before birth (ex. children of alcoholics)

2. Psychological - if you think your drunk youll act drunk, hard life = more susceptible to drug use

3. Environmental - culture (some accept drug use), effects of a drug in familiar setting.

state of heighten suggestibility in which some people are able to experience imagined situation as if they were real

it definitely is not sleep

you cant be hypnotized if you dont want to be

used to treat mental disorders

Hypnosis

Scientific Roots

Hypnosis

Hypnotic Induction

standard series of pass/fail suggestions that are read to a subject after induction

score based on number of passes 

rate of suggestability

Hypnosis

Behaviors/Experiances

1. subjectively experience actions as involuntary but you can make people behave against their will (milgram)

2. "Feats" - human plank

3. Pain Tolerance - hypnosis decreases chronic pain modifying the processes in brain areas that process painful stimuli (we dont know how)

Hypnosis

Amnesia and Memory

1. hypnotic amnesia - cant remember hypnosis or events right after. Why? avoid thinking, or hypnotic state weakens normal memory systems

2. may or may not increase memory (only works sometimes) , some memories may be false (created through hypnosis or suggestive questions afterwards)

3. testimony through hypnosis is banned or very limited, makes you too easily susceptible to distortion

Hypnosis

Dissociation Theory

altered state involving a division (dissociation) of consciousness. 

2 streams of consciousness cut off from each other:

1. hypnotized suggestions and 2. monitors behavior (remains is background but is fully aware - hidden observer) this is the main stream of consciousness that responds to suggestions but its blocked during hypnosis

Hypnosis 

Social Cognitive Theory

hypnotic state results from exceptions of people who are motivated to take on the role of being hypnotized. conformity - people believe their experiences are real and involuntary and are open to suggestion allowing it to occur. 

our expectations influence how the brain organizes sensory information