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PSYCH 1001- Condition/Learning
Study Guide No.2
85
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
11/03/2008

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Term
Classical Conditioning
Definition
Form of learning in which simple response/reflex responses(UR) are associated with new stimuli. AKA respondent conditioning. NS are followed by US to produce a UR and eventually learn a CR at which point the previously NS becomes a CS.
Term
Learning
Definition
Relatively PERMANENT change in behavior due to experience. Does not include temporary changes caused by motivation, fatigue, disease, injury, drugs, maturation, etc.
Term
Reinforcement
Definition
An event that INCREASES the chance of having a particular response occur.
Term
Operant conditioning
Definition
Learning based on the CONSEQUENCES of responding. Being conditioned based on what the results of an action you do are. AKA instrumental conditioning.
Term
Reflex
Definition
Automatic, INNATE, unlearned response to a stimulus (e.g. air pump(US) makes eye blink(UR))
Term
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Definition
Stimulus that does not evoke a response. Has no effect on subject.
Term
Acquisition
Definition
TRAINING- the period in conditioning during a response is reinforced.
Term
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Definition
A stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly PAIRED with an US.
Term
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Definition
INNATE REFLEX response produced from an US (e.g. smell of food gives off salivation).
Term
Condition Response (CR)
Definition
A LEARNED response produced from a CS (e.g. sound of bell (CS) paired with mealtime (US) for a dog will cause the dog to salivate at sound of bell (CR)).
Term
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Definition
A stimulus can produce a response on its own, doesn't need to be paired with anything to elicit response.
Term
Pavlov's classical experiment on dogs
Definition
Russian physiologist made a remarkable discovery on accident while studying digestion. During his research he noticed his dogs were salivating before they even saw or smell food, they salivated when he walked into the room. Salivation normally a UR, turned into a CR with the pairing of food right after the scientist walked into the room, that being the CS.
Term
Higher order conditioning
Definition
Form of classical conditioning that is one or more steps higher than the original conditioning. A CS is used as if it where a US because the CS has caused a learned response and can now be used to TEACH.
Term
Conditioned emotional response (CER)
Definition
Believed to be the starting point of many PHOBIAS. A LEARNED response exciting emotions with stimulus that used to be a NS.
Term
Desensitization
Definition
The reduction of fear and anxiety by repeatedly exposing a person to emotional stimulus while the person is deeply relaxed (e.g. bringing a caged spider closer and closer to someone who has arachnophobia while they are preoccupied and calm).
Term
Vicarious conditioning
Definition
Conditioning through the observation of another person's reaction to a stimulus (e.g. boy wants to ride a roller coaster, but when he sees someone crying from fear after going on the ride the boy fears the roller coaster too).
Term
Stimulus generalization
Definition
Tendency to respond to SIMILAR CS. A learned stimulus can cause other stimuli to elicit the same responses because of their similarity. (E.g. child burned by match might learn to fear any fires in general).
Term
Stimulus discrimination
Definition
Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and respond DIFFERENTLY to them.
Term
Spontaneous recovery
Definition
The reappearance of a LEARNED response AFTER it has been through the process of extinction.
Term
Extinction
Definition
WEAKENING of CR through the absence or REMOVAL of reinforcement.
Term
Expectancy
Definition
The anticipation concerning future event or relationships. During conditioning it is learned that a US will FOLLOW a CS so the brain prepares for the CS.
Term
Shaping
Definition
Reinforcement of PROGRESS toward final goal/stage. Practiced by B.F. Skinner in a "Skinner Box" e.g. he reinforced a mouse to eventually do a certain task like pressing a button by reinforcing movement towards the button or something that aids the progress of pressing the button. Used in OPERANT conditioning.
Term
Positive reinforcement
Definition
INCREASES a behavioral response by following that response with a reward or other positive event.
Term
Negative reinforcement
Definition
Made to INCREASE behavioral response by REMOVING a discomfort or unpleasant event.
Term
Punishment
Definition
An event that follows a response and DECREASES the likelihood of behavioral response's occurrence.
Term
Primary reinforcer
Definition
INNATE physiological needs that are used as a reinforcers when satisfied (e.g. deprivation of water and given a glass of WATER as a reward, can also be FOOD or SEX).
Term
Intracranial stimulation (ICR)
Definition
One of the most powerful PRIMARY reinforcers that involves direct activation of "pleasure centers." Extremely hard to accomplish.
Term
Secondary reinforcer
Definition
LEARNED reinforcer that are usually associated with primary reinforcers (e.g. parents giving kids praise as a reinforcer is often associated with food or candy so the praise alone will eventually be enough to satisfy usually). These include a much broader range of rewards: money, praise, attention, approval, success, etc.
Term
Token reinforcer
Definition
An EXCHANGE of a secondary for primary reinforcer (e.g. money can be exchanged for food, water, etc). A TANGIBLE secondary reinforcer. They don't lose reinforcing value as quickly are primary reinforcing does.
Term
Social reinforcer
Definition
Reinforcement based on receiving attention, approval, or affection from ANOTHER PERSON which can often influence human behavior (e.g. teacher taught to teach on one side of the classroom b/c student only paid more attention when she was on that side). Learned desire.
Term
Premack principle
Definition
High frequency behavior used to reinforce a LOW frequency behavior. A frequent behavior can be used as a reinforcer by allowing access to it only after a specific task has been completed (e.g. "you can't play video games until you finish your homework..")
Term
Partial reinforcement
Definition
A patterned time for reinforcing responses only a PORTION of the time. Includes: Fixed Ratio (FR), Variable Ratio (VR), Fixed interval (FI), and Variable interval (VI).
Term
Fixed ratio (FR)schedule
Definition
Reinforcement process where a certain number of CORRECT responses made will be rewarded. FR-X is X number of responses needs to receive reward (e.g. FR-10 means a rat gets food for pressing a button 10 times).
Term
Variable ratio (VR)schedule
Definition
A diverse amount of correct responses made gets reinforced as opposed to a fixed amount only. This schedule is known to produce HIGHEST response rates and GREATER resistance to extinction that FR. Usually based on an average amount such as VR-X where X is the average amount (e.g. slot machine is a behavior produced from VR)
Term
Fixed interval (FI)schedule
Definition
Reinforcement schedule where reinforce is given only when a correct response is made after a SET amount of time has passed. Produces a graph with spurts of activity with periods of inactivity. Produces moderate response rates and helps subject to develop a better sense of time (e.g. children behaving better around Christmas time to receive presents).
Term
Variable interval (VI)
Definition
Reinforcer give for the FIRST correct response made after an unspecified/non-consistent amount of time. Produced slow, steady response rates and GREAT resistance towards extinction (e.g. when fishing you catch a fish at random times if any).
Term
Behavior modification
Definition
Any use of operant or classical conditioning to directly alter human behavior.
Term
Aversion therapy
Definition
Type of therapy used to break bad habits by pairing the bad habit with a PUNISHMENT.
Term
Systematic desensitization
Definition
Therapy used to treat PHOBIAS by programming a CS produce a DIFFERENT response to PREVENT fear from occurring a while exposing subject to phobia gradually.
Term
Operant therapies
Definition
Any used of reinforcement and/or punishment. The punishment, is presented after the behavior rather than together with it.
Term
Ramachandran's phantom limb patient
Definition
Sematosensory cortex includes a "map" of the brain and the representation of the face on the map is next to the hand region of the brain. However, since this patient has no information coming from the hand, the face region is taking up the region of the hand and therefore activates the hand region of the brain WITH the face region now instead. Massive REORGANIZATION of the brain has taken place breaking the common belief that brain paths cannot change.
Term
Ramachandran's Capgras delusion patient
Definition
Object is recognized in the temporal and is relayed to the emigdula, the gateway to the limbic system, there it is accompanied with the appropriate emotional state found the the limbic system. However, this patient's connection from the temporal lobe to the emigdula are cut. Another strange phenomena is that the patient can HEAR, recognize and give the appropriate emotional response. How? because the auditory cortex in the temporal has a SEPARATE pathway to the emigdula that remains undamaged.
Term
Encode
Definition
Incoming information is converted into a USABLE form.
Term
Store
Definition
Information in memory is held for later use.
Term
Retrieve
Definition
Information is recovered from storage to be useful.
Term
Sensory memory
Definition
First stage of memory. This holds the exact record of incoming information for a few seconds or less. About 1-1.5 seconds of complete memory.
Term
Short-term memory (STM)
Definition
Second stage. Memory system used to hold SMALL amounts of information for a brief period. Usually people can retain 7(+or-)2 items, this is called "working memory" used for problem solving and thinking.
Term
Long-term memory (LTM)
Definition
Third stage. Memory system used for semi-permanent storage of meaningful and limitless amounts of information. STM linked to information stored in LTM by giving it personal meaning makes it easier to remember.
Term
Icon
Definition
Mental image or visual representation.
Term
Echo
Definition
Brief continuation of sensory activity in the auditory system after a sound if head. The sensory memory system holds the information long enough for it to be transferred to STM.
Term
Constructive processing
Definition
MEMORY UPDATING. Reorganizing or updating memories on the basis of logic, reasoning, or the addition of new information. Responsible for creating pseudo-memories.
Term
Elaborative rehearsal
Definition
Rehearsal that makes information more meaningful by linking STM to LTM.
Term
Maintenance rehearsal
Definition
Silently repeating or mentally review information to hold it in STM and prolong it.
Term
Information chunks
Definition
Information bits grouped into larger units to reduce the number of "items" currently being retained in memory.
Term
Sleep
Definition
Biggest alterer of consciousness. Cycles through 4 stages throughout the process, each cycle gets shorter and less "deep." Divided into REM and nREM
Term
Semantic memory
Definition
Sub-declarative memory that records impersonal knowledge about the world. This type of information is a mental encyclopedia of basic knowledge.
Term
Declarative memory
Definition
Memory storage of specific FACTUAL information such as names, faces, words, dates, etc. Can be divided into semantic and episodic memor.
Term
Episodic memory
Definition
Sub-declarative memory that identifies personal experiences: the "what, where, when" part of our lives. More easily forgotten of the two types of declarative memory.
Term
Procedural memory
Definition
LTM of basic CR and learned skills such as typing, driving, swimming, etc. SKILL memories rest in the cerebellum the "lower" part of the brain b/c they are more automatic elements.
Term
Stage 1 sleep
Definition
LIGHT sleep. Eyes closed, people don't believe they are really asleep, have hypnic jerks- sudden reflex to come out of sleep. Includes Alpha waves larger slower waves.
Term
Stage 2 sleep
Definition
Stage of sleep where sleep spindles occur- short bursts of brain wave activity. True boundary of sleep.
Term
Stage 3 sleep
Definition
Delta waves large and slow. Deeper sleep
Term
Stage 4 sleep
Definition
Deep sleep- almost completely delta waves at this time. Reached within 1 hour of sleep.
Term
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Definition
Device that can detect the tiny electrical signals the brain generates. Can be amplified and record brain waves. Awake = BETA waves, Sleep = ALPHA waves, and Deep sleep = DELTA waves.
Term
Rapid eye movement (REM)
Definition
Occurs during stage 1 sleep. Time of high emotion where eyes move, but the rest of the body is paralyzed, and vivid DREAMS occur.
Term
Insomnia
Definition
difficulty getting to sleep or stay asleep.
Term
Sleep deprivation
Definition
Prevention or loss of sleep. Leads to symptoms such as loss of concentration, remembering, pain sensitivity, general discomfort, etc.
Term
Consciousness
Definition
Mental awareness of sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings.
Term
Waking consciousness
Definition
State of clear, organized alertness. During this consciousness we perceive times, places, and events as being real.
Term
Alter state of consciousness (ASC)
Definition
Changes occur in the quality and pattern of mental activity such as being sick from a fever, sleep loss, dehydration, hypnosis etc.
Term
Hypnosis
Definition
Altered state of consciousness where individual has narrowed attention and increased suggestibility.
Term
Night terror
Definition
State of panic during NREM. Occurs during stages 3&4(NREM)of sleep, mostly happens to children. During this time they are not awake and have no recollection of it.
Term
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
Definition
Caused by sleep apnea. Babies with weak arousal reflex from suffocation don't try to breath and just die.
Term
Sleep apnea
Definition
Repeated interruption of breathing during sleep and makes victims extremely sleepy during the day. Person who snores loudly or snorts in sleep.
Term
REM rebound
Definition
Having EXTRA REM because of a deprivation of it.
Term
Nightmare
Definition
Bad dream in REM and can be gotten rid of by writing it out, changing it to be more pleasant, and visualizing the new dream before going to sleep- this is called imagery rehearsal.
Term
Psychoactive drug
Definition
Substance capable of altering attention, memory, judgment, time sense, self-control, mood, or perception.
Term
Agonists
Definition
INCREASE effect of neurotransmitter
Term
Antagonist
Definition
DECREASE effect of neurotransmitter.
Term
Priming
Definition
Facilitating the retrieval of an implicit(hidden) memory by using cues/hints or suggestions to activate hidden memories.
Term
Implicit memory
Definition
Hidden memories that a person doesn't know exist and is retrieved UNconsciously.
Term
Explicit memory
Definition
A memory we are aware of having and can be consciously retrieved.
Term
Recall
Definition
Supply or reproduce memorized information with minimum of external cues such as verbatim tests or fill-in-the-blanks.
Term
Relearning
Definition
Learning again something that was previously learned. Saving scores- amount of time saved by learning information again.
Term
Eidetic imagery
Definition
Photographic memory. When a picture can be retained and visualized with eyes closed.
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