Term
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Definition
| Capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information. |
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Term
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Definition
| circumstances in which one uses conscious effort to encode or retrieve information |
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Term
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Definition
| encode or retrieve information without conscious effort |
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Term
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Definition
| memory used to recall events and facts |
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Term
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Definition
| memory to recall how to do things |
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Term
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Definition
| memory system in the visual domain that allows large amounts of infomration to be stored for very brief durations |
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Term
| What is short term memory and its capacity? |
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Definition
| memory processes associated with preservation of recent experiences and with retrieval of information from long term memory, limited capacity and stores information for only a short length of time without rehearsal. Usually capacity is 7+-2 |
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Term
| How can short term memory be enhanced? |
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Definition
Through rehearsal techniques:
Chunking: process of grouping items by similarity or other organizing principle or by combining them into larger patterns based on information stored in long term memory |
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Term
| Working memory and its components as proposed by Baddeley |
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Definition
Working memory is the memory resource that you use to accomplish tasks like reasoning. (do multiple tasks take up working memory)
Components: Phonological loop (holds and manipulates speech based information, overlaps with short term memory, e.g. listening to a telephone number.
Visuospatial sketchpad: same as loop but for visual and spatial information
central executive: this resource is responsible for controlling attention and coordinating information from the loop and sketchpad
episodic buffer: storage system with limited capacity that is controlled by the central executive, allows retrieval of information from long term memory and combine it with information from current situation |
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Term
| Long term memory and retrieval cues |
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Definition
| Long term memory is the storehouse of all experiences, events, information, emotions, skills, words, categories, rules and judgments that have been acquired from sensory and short-term memories. Retrieval cues are teh stimuli available as you search for a particular memory, like questions |
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Term
| Recall and recognition? which is more difficult |
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Definition
| recall is reproducing the information to which one was previously exposed to (someone asks you a question)and recognition is the realization that a certain stimulus event is one you have seen or heard before (e.g. multiple choice). Recognition is much easier because you technically only have to answer yes or no per each choice rather than think with only from the cue with recall |
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Term
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Definition
| episodic memories preserve individually, the specific events that you have personally experienced e.g. happiest birthday |
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Term
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Definition
| generic, categorical memories such as the meaning of words and concepts |
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Term
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Definition
| memories emerge most efficiently when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding |
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Term
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Definition
| the environment where one learns something aids in recollection when the environment is the same |
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Term
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Definition
| the environment where one learns something aids in recollection when the environment is the same |
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Term
| Serial position, primacy, and recency effect |
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Definition
Serial position effect: characteristic of memory retrieval in which the recall of beginning and end items on a list is often better than recall of items appearing in the middle.
primacy effect: improved memory for items at the start of a list
recency effect: improved memory for items at the end of a list |
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Term
| contextual distinctiveness |
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Definition
| the assumption that the serial position effect can be altered by the context and the distinctiveness of the experience being recalled (middle stuff can be recalled if it was memorable) |
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Term
| Levels of processing theory |
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Definition
| deeper the level at which information was processed, the more likely it is to be committed to memory, like taking notes in a book |
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Term
| Transfer appropriate processing |
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Definition
| Memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding transfers to the processes required at retrieval |
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Term
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Definition
| first experience of the word primes memory for later experiences |
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Term
| Hermann Ebbinghaus and forgetting |
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Definition
| He started by having a list on nonsense words, and kept reading it until he remembered it, then remembered other lists, then calculated how long it would take to remember the original list. Because the original list was not grounded, it took him a long time |
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Term
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Definition
| circumstances in which past memories make it more difficult to encode and retrieve new information (remembering new old phone number) |
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Term
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Definition
| occurs when the acquisition of new information makes it harder for you to remember old information (remembering original list after learning new list) |
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Term
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Definition
| when rehearsing information, while you are first committing it to memory, you elaborate on teh material to enrich the encoding (come up with a story between 2 words) |
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Term
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Definition
| devices that encode a long series of facts by associating them with familiar and previous encoded information (associate with rhyme or routes) |
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Term
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Definition
| Implicit or explicit knowledge about memory abilities and effective memory strategies |
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Term
| concepts, basic level concept, and family resemblance |
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Definition
Concept: the mental representations of the categories you form
basic level concept: basic catagory which people attribute to e.g. an apple would be called an apple and not just, a piece of fruit, or the brand name.
Family resemblance: typical category members have attributes that overlap with many other members of teh category (robin vs. ostrich) |
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Term
| How is remembering a reconstructive process |
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Definition
| the process of putting informatino together based on general types of stored knowledge in the absence of a specific memory representation (e.g. did you breathe at 12 today) |
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Term
| Bartlett and reconstructive memory |
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Definition
| Asked college students to remember a story from a different culture, witnessed leveling (simplification), sharpening (highlighting and overemphasizing certain details), and assimilating (changing the details to better fit own background or knowledge.) |
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Term
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Definition
| People's vivid and richly detailed memory in response to personal or public events that have great emotional significance. |
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Term
| Elizabeth Loftus study on eyewitness memory |
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Definition
| Study showed postevent information distortion (certain words, led to misinformation like was there any broken class or the word smash versus contact) and the misinformation effect(a cue from something that didnt exist led to belief that it was there) |
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Term
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Definition
| Karl Lashley performed work on engrams, teh physical memory representation |
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Term
| Amnesia and what is the difference between anterograde and retrograde types |
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Definition
Amnesia: The failure of a memory over a prolonged period
Anterograde: inability to form memories for events that occur after teh time of physical damage
retrograde: inability to retrieve memories from the time before physical damage |
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Term
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Definition
| general term for all forms of knowing |
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Term
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Definition
| study of higher mental processes such as attention, memory, perception, and thinking |
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Term
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Definition
| field of study of the approach systems and processes that manipulate information |
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Term
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Definition
| one of the higher mental processes, such as perception, memory, language, problem solving, and abstract thinking. |
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Term
| Serial and parallel processes |
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Definition
| Serial: thought process goes one at a time while parallel is when 2 processes that acre carried out simultaneously |
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Term
| Controlled and automatic processes |
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Definition
Controlled: process that requires attention, it is often difficult to carry out more than one controlled process at a time
automatic: process that does not require attention it can often be performed along with other tasks without interference |
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Term
| Study of language production |
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Definition
| what people say, sign, and write, as well as teh processes they go through to produce these messages |
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Term
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Definition
| the process of shaping a message depending on the audience for which it is intended |
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Term
| Grice's maxims in language production |
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Definition
Quantity: Make your contribution as informative as is required, do not make it more
Quality: Try to make your contribution on that is true, do not say false things and things without evidence
Relation: Be relevent
Manner: Be perspicacious, avoid obscurity and ambiguity |
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Term
| Clarks ways for judging common ground |
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Definition
community membership: language producers often make strong assumptions about what is likely to be mutually known basied on shared membership in communities
Copresence for actions: Language producers often assume that the actions and events they have shared with others become part of common ground
Perceptual copresence: Perceptual copresence exists when a speaker and a listener share the same perceptual events |
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Term
| How do speech errors help us understand speech production |
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Definition
| It demonstrates the mental processes one has to use to speak: speakers must choose the content words that best fit their ideas, must put the chosen words in teh right places, and speakers must fill in the sounds that make up the words they wish to utter. |
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Term
| how do people resolve ambiguity when understanding language, difference between lexical and structural ambiguity |
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Definition
Lexical: ambiguity of word meaning
Structural: ambiguous sentence, might have 2 meanings
we resolve ambiguity by using context to to discover the meaning |
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Term
| Role of inferences in understanding speech |
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Definition
| logical assumptions made possible by information in memory (basically shortens the amount of description needed) |
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Term
| Evidence of non humans and grammatical rules and audience design |
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Definition
| Primates have shown to have some understanding capabilities, but less so when it comes to audience design |
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Term
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Definition
| the hypothesis that the structure of the language an individual speaks has an impact on teh way in which that individual thinks about the world. |
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Term
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Definition
| thinkign that is directed toward solving specific problems and that moves from an initial state to a goal state by means of operations |
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Term
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Definition
| process of thinking in which conclusions are drawn from a set of facts, thinking directed toward a given goal or objective |
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Term
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Definition
| The elements that make up a problem: the initial state, teh incomplete information or unsatisfactory conditions, the goal state, and the operations needed to get to goal state |
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Term
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Definition
| step by step procedure that always provides the right answer for a problem |
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Term
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Definition
| cognitive strategies often used as shortcuts in solving a complex task |
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Term
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Definition
| report made by an experimental participant of the mental processes adn strategies one uses while working on a task |
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Term
| how do you improve problem solving, how does functional fixedness hinder problem solving |
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Definition
| Improve by allowing yourself to represent each problem so that each operation is possible given teh resources, or practice each of the components of the solution so it requires less resources. Functional fixedness is a mental block that adversely affects problem solving by inhibiting the perception of a new function for an object that was previously associated |
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Term
| deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning |
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Definition
deductive: a form of thinking in which one draws a conclusion taht is intended to follow logically from two or more statements or premises
inductive:a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is made about teh probability of some state of affairs, based on the available evidence and past experience. |
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Term
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Definition
| a situation that occurs when a person's prior knowledge, attitudes, or values distort the reasoning process by influencing the person to accept invalid arguments |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used to respond to a previous problem |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which people form opinions, reach conclusions, and make critical, evaluations, of events and people based on available material, also the product of the mental activities |
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Term
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Definition
| the process of choosing between alternatives, selecting or rejecting available options |
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Term
| according to Tverskey and Kahneman how do people tend to make judgments |
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Definition
| often rely on heuristics rather than on formal methods of analysis |
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Term
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Definition
| a judgment based on the information readily available in memory |
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Term
| representativeness heuristic |
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Definition
| a cognitive strategy that assigns an object to a category on the basis of a few characteristics regarded as representative of that category |
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Term
| What is the role of framing in decision making |
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Definition
| a particular description of a choice, the perspective from which a choice is described or framed affects how a decision is made and which option is ultimately exercised. |
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Term
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Definition
| state of awareness of internal events and the external environment |
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Term
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Definition
| bodily activities that do no impinge on consciousness (blood pressure regulation) |
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Term
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Definition
| memory that is not currently conscious but that can easily be called into consciousness when necessary |
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Term
| Unattended information, what is the cocktail party phenomenon |
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Definition
| people only have a limited capacity to carry out complete processing, and can not identify perceptual stimuli. However, the cocktail party phenomenon says that people pay attention to their own names when it is said even when they are in their own conversation. |
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Term
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Definition
| cannot explain some behavior by virtue of forces that were conscious at the time of the behavior, could also mean context interpretation is unconscious. |
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Term
| How do we study consciousness, describe a method to study consciousness |
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Definition
| study by usually having out loud protocols used to document mental processes while people are doing tasks |
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Term
| What is circadian rhythm, how does it explain jet lag? |
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Definition
| circadian rhythm is a consistent pattern of cyclical body activities, usually lasting 24 hours and determined by an internal biological clock, jet lag is caused by the difference in the internal clock and the normal temporal envionment |
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Term
| Uses of consciousness, how to study |
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Definition
| Reduces flow of stimulus by restricting what you notice and what you focus on, selectively stores relevant information, and makes you stop and think and consider alternatives based on past knowledge and consequences. Studied by asking questions that tests both the conscious and unconscious mental processes |
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Term
| Stages of sleep, what is a sleep cycle, how does the amount time spent in REM sleep change |
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Definition
stage 1: EEG of 3-7
stage 2: sleep spindles of 12-16 cps
stage 3/4: deep state of relaxed sleep, slows to 1-2 cps and breathing/heart rate decreases
4th stage: activity increases and looks like 1/2, experience REM sleep and dreams. usually it is a 100 minute cycle 4-6 times and as it occurs more, there is less relaxed sleep and more REM sleep |
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Term
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Definition
| behavioral sign of the phase of sleep during which the sleeper is experiencing dreamlike mental activity |
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Term
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Definition
| enabled animals to conserve energy at times when there was no need for activity, and allows body t get rid of oxygen metabolism by products. also REM sleep might be necesary for development of normal function, solidfies attainment of new tasks |
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Term
| What is insomnia, why might it be subjective |
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Definition
| chronic inability to sleep normally, might be subjective because of teh differences in cognitions and emotions when sleeping |
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Term
| narcolepsy, sleep apnea, somnambulism |
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Definition
narcolepsy: sleep disorder characterized by an irresistible compulsion to sleep during the day
sleep apnea: sleep disorder of teh upper respiratory system that causes the person to stop breathing while asleep
somnambulism: sleepwalking |
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Term
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Definition
| episodes in which sleepers wake up suddenly in an extreme state of arousal and panic |
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Term
| latent and manifest content |
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Definition
latent content: In Freudian dream analysis, the hidden meaning of a dream
manifest content: In Freudian dream analysis, the surface content of a dream, which is assumed to mask the dream's real meaning. |
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Term
| What is personality and its types? |
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Definition
Personality is the psychological qualities of an individual that influence a variety of characteristic behavior patterns across difference situations and over time
Types: distinct patter of personality characteristics used to assign people to categories, qualitative differences, rather than differences in degree |
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Term
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Definition
| enduring personal quality or attribute that influences behavior across situations |
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Term
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Definition
| traits are the building blocks of personality and the source of individuality, traits produce coherence in behavior because they connect and unify a person's reactions to a variety of stimuli and responses. identified 3 kinds of traits: cardinal traits(traits a person organizes life around), central traits (represents major characteristics, secondary traits (specific personal features that help predict an individual's behavior for less useful for understanding a personality, like food preference) |
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Term
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Definition
| 16 factors that are the source of human behavior, offered behavioral oppositions |
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Term
| what personality dimensions did Eysenck derive from personality tests |
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Definition
| extraversion (internally versus externally oriented), neuroticism (emotionally stable versus emotionally unstable), and psychoticism (kind versus aggressive) |
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Term
| five factor model of personality |
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Definition
| a comprehensive descriptive personality system that maps out the relationships among commons traits, concepts, and personality scales |
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Term
| Do traits predict behaviors across different situations, what is cross situational consistency |
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Definition
| traits do not really predict behavious in different situations as a trait is tested in a cross situational test |
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Term
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Definition
| personality ratings across time and among different observers are consistent whereas behavior ratings of a person across situations are not consistent |
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Term
| psychodynamic personality theory |
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Definition
| Theory of personality that shares teh assumption that personality is shaped by and behavior is motivated by inner forces |
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Term
| What is libido and fixation |
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Definition
| libido is the psychic energy that drives individuals toward sensual pleasures of all types. Fixation is a state in which a person remains attached to objects or activities more appropriate for an earlier stage of psychosexual development |
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Term
| Psychic determinism and the unconscious according to Freud |
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Definition
Psychic determinism: assumption that all mental and behavioral reactions are determined by earlier experiences
unconscious: the repository of information that is unavailable to the conscious awareness |
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Term
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Definition
| mental strategies the ego uses to defnd itself in teh daily conflict between id impulses and superego's denial. could either be repression or anxiety |
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Term
| Criticisms of Freudian theory |
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Definition
| psychoanalytic concepts are vague and not operationally defined so it is hard to evaluate scientifically, does not reliably predict what will occur because it is applied retrospectively, and developmental theory but never studies children, minimizes traumatic experiences, and is male centered |
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Term
| How did Adler, Horney, and Jung extend psychodynamic theory |
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Definition
| Put greater emphasis on ego functions, view social variables, less emphasis on general sexual urges, and extend personality development to entire lifespan |
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Term
| What is the collective unconscious and an archetype |
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Definition
formulated by Carl Jung, teh collective unconscious is the teh part of an unconscious that is inherited, evolutionarily developed, and common to all members of the species
archetype: universal, inherited, primitive, and symbolic representation of a particular experience or object |
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Term
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Definition
| constant striving to realize one's inherent potential, to develop one's capacities and talents |
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Term
| features of humanistic theories |
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Definition
| unconditional positive regard, favorable environmental circumstances needed, holistic because they explain people's seperate acts in terms of their entire personalities, dispositional because they focus on innate qualities within a person that exert a major influence over the direction behavior will take, phenomenological because they emphasie an individual's frame of reference and subjective view of reality |
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Term
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Definition
| the extent to which people beleive that their behaviors is certain situations will bring about rewards |
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Term
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Definition
| Peopel's general expectancy about the extent to which the rewards they obtain are contingent on their own actions or on environmental factors |
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Term
| cognitive affective personality theory |
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Definition
| peopel actively participate in teh cognitive organization of their interactions with the environment, for example someone nice in beginning isn't nice at the end and vice versa would be viewed as the same, but doesn't capture differences in behavior |
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Term
| cognitive social learning theory |
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Definition
| stresses teh cognitive processes that are involeved in acquiring and maintaing patterns of behavior and thus personality, emphasizes observational learning |
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Term
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Definition
| refers to teh notion that a complex reciprocal interaction exists among teh individual, his behavior, and environmental stimuli and that each of these components affects the others |
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Term
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Definition
| belief that one can perform adequately in a particular situation, judgements come from experience, persuasion, adn emotional arousal |
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Term
| social intelligence theory |
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Definition
refers to the expertise people bring to their experience of life tasks, defines three types of differences:
choice of life goals, knowledge relevant to social interactions, and strategies for implementing goals (Cantor) |
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Term
| self-concept, possible selves, and self esteem |
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Definition
self concept: a person's mental model of their abilities and attributes
possible selves:one of teh ideal selves that a person would like to become, the selves a person could become, and afraid of becoming
self esteem: generalized ebaluative attitude toward the self that influences both moods and behavior and that exerts a powerful effect on a range of personal and social behaviors |
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Term
| independent and interpendent construals of self |
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Definition
thought by Markus nad Kitayama, self is organized by reference to one's own thoughts and actions
interdependent: conceptualization of the self as part of an encompassing social relationship |
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Term
| Personality inventory, MMPI, NEO-PI |
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Definition
a self report questionnaire used for personality assessment that includes a series of items about thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
MMPI: scales that use questions to see how similarly a person within a psychological group responds, and how different it is from other groups
NEO-PI: designed to assess personality characteristics in an adult, took five factor model. |
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Term
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Definition
| developed my Henry Murray, patients were asked to make stories about ambiguous scenes |
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Term
| seven criteria that is used to label behavior as abnormal |
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Definition
| distress or disability, maladaptiveness (acting in a way that hinders goals, does not contribute to well being), irrationality, unpredictability, unconventional rarity, observer discomfort, and violation of moral and ideal standards |
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Term
| Psychopathological functioning |
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Definition
| disruptions in emotional, behavioral, or thought processes that lead to personal distress or block one's ability to achieve important goals |
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Term
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Definition
| the area of psychological investigation concerned with understanding the nature of individual pathologies of mind, mood,and behavior |
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Term
| objectivity issue when diagnosing someone as psychologically disordered or abnormal |
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Definition
| diagnoses might be skewed because of content and context, and labels make people more inclined to interpret later behavior to confirm that judgement |
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Term
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Definition
| the current diagnostic and statistical manual of the association that classifies, defines ,and describes mental disorders |
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Term
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Definition
| The experience of more than one disorder at the same time |
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Term
| What are neurotic and psychotic disorders, and why was the distinction between the two eliminated from DSM III |
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Definition
neurotic disorders: mental disorder in which a person does not have signs of brain abnormalities adn does not display grossly irrational thinking or violate basic norms but does experience subjective distress.
Psychotic: servere mental disorder in which a person experiences impairments in relaity testing mnaifested through thought emotional or perceptual difficulties
dropped because the definitions of the two were too general to be useful in diagnosing |
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Term
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Definition
| The legal, not clinical designation for the state of an individual judged to be legally irresponsible or incompetent, no clinical definition |
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Term
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Definition
| the causes of or factor related to, the development of a disorder |
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Term
| generalized anxiety disorder |
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Definition
| an anxiety disorder in which an individual feels anxious and worried most of the time for at least six months when not threatened |
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Term
|
Definition
| an anxiety disorder in which sufferers experience sudden panic attacks that begin with intense fear or terror |
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Term
| explanations for anxiety disorders |
|
Definition
biological: lower levels of serotonin, and GABA causes PTSD and anxiety respectively andpeople with OCD have greater thickness in area that normally allow people to inhibit behaviors
Psychodynamic: anxiety is attempt to protect from psychological pain, like if something reminded them of home and something symbolizes it later on occurs
Behavioral: focuses on the way symptoms of anxiety disorders are reinforced or conditioned, like if a mother yells when she sees a snake
Cognitive: concentrates on teh perceptual processes or attitudes that may distort a person's estimate of teh danger he is facing. Often interpret their own distress as signs of disaster, sets off cycle in which fears lead to anxiety and then outcome. |
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Term
| Mood disorder, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder |
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Definition
Mood disorder: a mood disturbance such as severe depression or depression alternating with mania
Major depressive disorder: a mood disorder characterized by intense feelings of depression over an extended time, without the manic high phase of bipolar depression
bipolar disorder: a mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania |
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Term
| explanations of mood disorders |
|
Definition
Biological: reduced levels of serotonin and noreinephrine lead to depression, and increased levels lead to mania. genetic factors also correlate with bipolar disorders.
Psychodynamic: conflicts and feelings that originate in early childhood, anger at someone else, but turned inward against the self
Behavioral: focuses on teh effects of teh amount of positive reinforcement and punishments a person receives.
Cognitive: Negative cognitive sets, patterns of perceiving the world, lead people to take a negative view of events in their lives ofr which they feel responsible. Explanatory style model proposes that depression arises from teh belief that one has little or not control over life events |
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Term
|
Definition
| Martin Seligman and Maier. general pattern of nonresponding in teh presence of noxious stimuli that often follows after an organism has previously experienced noncontingent, inescapable aversive stimuli |
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Term
| What are personality disorders |
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Definition
| A chronic, inflexible, maladaptive pattern of perceiving, thinking, and behaving that seriously impairs an individuals ability to function in social or other settings |
|
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Term
| borderline personality disorder |
|
Definition
| a disorder defined by instability and intensity in personal relationships as well as turbulent emotions and impulsive behaviors |
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Term
| Antisocial personality disorder |
|
Definition
| a disorder characterized by stable patterns of irresponsible or unlawful behavior that violates social norms |
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Term
| Somatoform and dissociative disorders |
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Definition
Somatoform: people have physical illnesses that cannot be fully explained by actual medical conditions
Dissociative: distrubance in the integration of identity, memory, or consciousness |
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Term
|
Definition
| Severe form of psychopathology in which personality seems to disintegrate, thought and perception are distorted and emotions are blunted |
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Term
|
Definition
Disorganized: emotions are flattened or inappropriate to teh situation, acts silly in a childish manner for no reason, delusions
Catatonic: Disruption in motor activity can show show too much activity
Paranoid: delusions of persecution, grandeur, and jealously
Undifferentiated: grab bag of previous types
Residual: suffered past episode but mainly free of major symptoms, may have minor symptoms |
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Term
|
Definition
| Genetic is a major factor, ventricles in brain are enlarged, thinner regions in frontal and temporal loves, excessive gray matter lose, environmental stressors |
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Term
| 4 goals in the therapeutic process |
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Definition
| Reaching a diagnosis, proposing a probable etiology, making a prognosis, treatment |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| focuses on changing teh mechanisms that run the central nervous system |
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Term
| psychotherapy adn different types |
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Definition
| focuses on changing the faulty behaviors people have learned. psychodynamic, behavior, cognitive |
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Term
| Later psychodynamic theories |
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Definition
Sullivan: felt that Freudian theory and therapy did not recognize the importance of social relationships and the patient's needs
Klien: argued for a death instinct that led to innate aggresive impulse. 2 forces are aggression and love |
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Term
| different behavior therapies |
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Definition
| counterconditioning (a new response is conditioned to replace a maladaptive response), and contingency management involving changing behavior by modifying its consequences |
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Term
|
Definition
| designed to modify problematic behavior patterns by arranging conditions in which a client will observe models being reinforced for a desirable form of responding |
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Term
|
Definition
| technigque in which a therapist demonstrates desired behavior and a client is aided to imitate behavior |
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Term
|
Definition
| proccedures used to establish and strengthen basic skills, as used in social skills training programs, requires teh client to rehearse a desirable behavior mentally |
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Term
| cognitive therapy, rational emotive therapy, and cognitive-behavioral therapy |
|
Definition
cognitive therapy attempts to change problem feelings and behaviors by changing the way a client thinks about significant life experiences.
RET: comprehensive system of personality change based on changing irrational beliefs that cause undesirable, highly charged emotional reactions
cognitive behavioral therapy: therapeutic approach that combines the cognitive emphasis on thoughts and attitudes with the behavioral emphasis on changing performance |
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Term
| human potential movement, client centered therapy, and gestalt therapy |
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Definition
human potential movement: movement encompassed methods to enhance the potential of teh average human being toward greater levels of performance and experience
client centered: promote the healthy psychological growth of teh individual
gestalt therapy: focuses on ways to unite mind and body to make a person whole, Fritz Perls |
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