Classical Conditioning

Learning that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS/US) to elicit a conditioned response (CR).

-invlountary/passive

Stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR/UR) without previous conditioning.

ie food, electric shock

Unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS/US) that occurs without previous conditioning.

 ie salivation, fear

Stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

ie red light turned on

Previously neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an UCS, now causes a conditioned response (CR).

Learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that occurs because of previous repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) 

 Classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Basic classical conditioning when a neutral stimulus (NS) is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that  the NS comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR)

Stimuli similar to the original CS elicit a CR.

ie-CS=white rat, but Santa Beard produces same CR

Only the CS elicits the CR.-Learning to distinguish between an original CS and similar stimuli by having enough experience with both.

Repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS, which gradually weakens the CR.-ex: ring bell, but don’t give food.

NOT PERMANENT FORM

Sudden reappearance of a previously extinct CR.

Neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS).

NS presented before UCS and remains until UCR begins

·         Ring bell, then food

NS presented at same time as UCS.

·         Ring bell and give food at same time

NS presented and then taken away, or ends before UCS is presented

·         Ring bell, but food presented only once the sound stops

UCS presented before NS

·         Food presented before ringing bell

Learning through the consequences of voluntary behavior.

-Voluntary/active

Strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur.

Weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur.

Thordike’s rule that the probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when it is followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence.

·         Rewarded behavior is more likely to occur

·         Behavior is due to conscious choice or intention

Primary Reinforcers:

Stimuli that increase the probability of a response because they satisfy an unlearned, biological need (food, water, sex)

Stimuli that increase the probability of a response because of their learned value (money, praise, material possessions)

Adding or presenting a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur

Taking away or removing a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur.

1. Variable Ratio
2. Variable Interval
3. Fixed Ratio
4. Fixed Interval

occurs when a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.-reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses

 occurs when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.-Reinforcement occurs unpredictably

are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.-Reinforcement occurs after a certain amount of time has elapsed

 occurs when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.-Reinforcement occurs unpredictably

add or present a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur (spank)

take away or remove a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur (no TV)

emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior

Sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution

 -take a break then go back to problem

Hidden learning/knowledge that exists without behavioral signs-only shows up when there is a reason to display the knowledge

Learning new behaviors or information by watching and imitating others –observational/modeling

·         Bobo Doll: Children “learned” behavior from and adult “model”

1. NS (Ring bell)
2. No Response
3. US (Food)
4. UR (drool)
5. CS (ring bell)
6. US (food)
7. UR (drool)
8. CS (ring bell)
9. CR (drool)

Conditioning is

a-Conscious

b-unconscious

Internal record or representation of some prior event or experience

Processing information into the memory system

Retaining information over time

Recovering information from memory storage

THREE STAGES OF MEMORY

Sensory

Short Term

Long Term

  everything we see, touch, hear, taste and smell.  Stays in memory long enough to locate relevant bits of information and transfer them to the next stage. 

visual information memory-image lasts about .5-1 seconds

Part of sensory memory

auditory information-lasts the same amount of time, but a weaker memory can last up to 2-4 seconds

Part of sensory memory

Second stage of memory that temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to long-term memory.  Limited capacity- 5-9 items: Chunking-grouping separate pieces of information into a single unit.

*Consciously aware

—Working/active memory (pull from LTM)

Third stage of memory that stores information for long periods of time; capacity is limitless, and duration is relatively permanent.

*unconscious retrieval of information

consists of unconscious procedural skills and simple classically conditioned responses or automatic behaviors-unintentional learning or unconscious knowledge

Part of LTM

-recognition (multi choice test)

What we KNOW

Explicit Memory (declarative):

consciously stores facts, information, and personal life experiences.

Able to state

What we REMEMBER

*recall-essay test

Part of LTM

stores general knowledge

Part of Explicit Memory

Episodic Memory:

                                     memories of personally experienced events

Part of Explicit Memory

Clue or prompt that helps stimulate recall or retrieval of a stored piece of information from long term memory

RETRIEVAL CUE-Retrieving a memory using a general cue-like essay exam (explicit memory)

-Recognition:

Prior exposure to a stimulus facilitates or inhibits the processing of new information, even when one has no conscious memory of the initial learning and storage

Encoding Specificity Principle:

Retrieval of information is improved when conditions of recovery are similar to the conditions when information was encoded-memory retrieval is increased when we have matching context, moods, and states.

*The way we process information during encoding determines how it is stored in LTM: The way information is stored in LTM determines how it is retrieved.

Decay Theory:

Two competing memories

Retroactive interference:

new info interferes with old info

Part of interference theory of forgetting

old info interferes with new info

Part of interference theory of forgetting

Forget some information for a reason

-it's in our best interest

Suppression vs Repression:

consciously-unconsciously

Part of motivated forgetting

memory is not encoded and passed to LTM, and therefore cannot be retrieved

“tip of the tongue”-memory is in LTM, but have trouble retrieving.

Long-lasting increase in neural excitability, which may be a biological mechanism for learning and memory

-reactivating between visual and auditory via hippocampus

detailed memory with strong emotional circumstances, but are not as accurate as you think

loss of memory as a result of brain injury

loss of memory for events before a brain injury—backward  acting amnesia

*memory loss  goes back in time with most severe loss closest to accident-STM retrieval from LTM is interrupted

Inability to form new memories after a brain injury—forward acting amnesia

-damage to hippocampus memory after accident is not coded to LTM

Works with source amnesia (remembering info)

-an example of false memory

*the tendency to falsely recall a target word from a set list of words centered around that target word.

Flash rows of letters for a second.  Most people could only recall 4-5 letters.  When instructed to report just the top, or middle, or bottom, they could almost always report correctly. 

KZRA

QBTP

SGNY

Advantage for first word on list

-encoded into LTM whether tested immediately or delayed

 *distributed practice=break up into smaller sections

advantage for last word on list because it is fresh, still in STM.  Must be tested immediately

*Massed practice=cramming

 mental representation of a previously stored sensory experience

Mental representation of a group or category that shares similar characteristics (River-Nile, Amazon.

-based on experience

concepts created from logical rules or definitions

based on personal best example or typical representation—called prototype

mental arrangement with categories

a.       Superordinate (IE Animal)-no mental image

b.      Basic Level (IE Bird)

c.       Subordinate (IE Parakeet)

PROBLEM SOLVING STEPS

1. Preparation
2. Production
3. Evaluation

Preparation

a.       Identify given facts

b.      Separate relevant from irrelevant facts

c.       Define the ultimate goal

generate possible solutions called hypotheses

1. Algorithm
2. Heuristic

logical step-by-step procedure, that if followed correctly, will always produce the solution

simple rule or shortcut for problem solving that does not guarantee a solution but does narrow the alternatives

-guess that is usually acceblable; gets the job done, but may not be entirely accurate: Rule of thumb

                                                                          i.      Working backward:

                                                                        ii.      Means-end analysis:

                                                                      iii.      Subgoals:

                                                        start with the solution and work backwards through the problem

                                                     determining what measure would reduce the difference between the given state and the goal.  Once the means to reach the goal are determined, the problem is solved

             Subgoals:

                                                 Large, complex problems are broken down into a series of small subgoals.

If problem is solved, then you are done.  If it is not, then you must return to step 1. 

BARRIERS TO PROBLEM SOLVING

Mental Set

Functional fixedness

Confirmations bias:

persisting in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past rather than trying new ones-set in old ways

      tendency to think of an object functioning only in its usual or customary way

     Preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence

   judging the likelihood or probability of an even based on how readily available other instances of the event are in memory.

*Reno is capital of Nevada-No, Carson City is

     Estimating the probability of something based on how well the circumstances match or represent our previous prototype.

 -believe Blonde carrying surfboard is pro surfer even though it's more likely they are a lawyer

LANGUAGE PROCESS

Phonemes

Morphemes

Grammar

Phonemes

smallest distinctive sound units that make up every language

a.       Cooing: vowel-like sounds (2-6mo)

smallest meaningful units of language-syllables

a.       Babbling: consonants added (6mo-1yr)

    (linguistics):Real words: system of rules used to generate acceptable language that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

 1-2 years

-use words to include objects that do not fit the word’s meaning

(1-2years)

*Part of Grammar Phase

(telegraphic and overgeneralization): Grammatical rules for putting words in correct order-short tarzan sentences (2years +)

*Part of Grammar Phase

Rules for using words to create meaning

*Part of Grammar phase

capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment

Aspects of innate intelligence, including reasoning, memory, and information processing speed.

Knowledge and skills gained through experience and education that tend to increase over lifespan

three separate and different aspects of intelligence.  Each is learned (not genetic)

analysis, evaluation, judgment, comparison-makes good decisions

invention, imagination

application, implementation, execution, and utilization

Mental Age    X100

Chron Age

·         WAIS: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

·         WISC: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

·         WPPIS: Wechsler Preschool and Primary Intelligence Scale

*no reading

PROBLEMS WITH IQ TESTS:

1. Cultural Bias: may be underrepresented in sample average

1. Environmental Bias: Environment plays a role in IQ scores * Stronger predictor than genetics