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Psyc 110 - Unit 1 Exam
Chapters 1-4
134
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
07/11/2008

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Term
accommodation
Definition
Term
androgens
Definition
Term
assimilation
Definition
Term
attachments
Definition
Term
cross-sectional design
Definition
Term
dementia
Definition
Term
development
Definition
the age-related physical, intellectual, social, and personal changes that occur throughout an individual’s lifetime
Term
gender roles
Definition
Term
longitudinal design
Definition
Term
menarche
Definition
Term
menopause
Definition
Term
morality
Definition
Term
object permanence
Definition
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personal identity
Definition
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principle of conservation
Definition
Term
schemata
Definition
Term
teratogens
Definition
environmental agents – such as disease organisms or drugs – that can potentially damage the developing embryo or fetus
Term
zygote
Definition
the fertilized human egg, containing 23 chromosomes from the father and 23 chromosomes from the mother
Term
case study
Definition
an in-depth observation of one subject
Term
causal hypothesis
Definition
an educated guess about how one variable will influence another variable.  Researcher must be able to control or manipulate the main variables in a study
Term
confederates
Definition
individuals who pose as participants but who are really working for the researcher
Term
confidentiality
Definition
researchers do not reveal which data were collected from which participant
Term
confounding variable
Definition
any factor that affects the dependent measure other than the independent variable
Term
correlation
Definition
the relationship between two or more variables
Term
correlation coefficient
Definition
a number that tells us the strength of the relationship between two factors, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00
Term
debriefing
Definition
after an experiment, participants are fully informed of the nature of the study
Term
dependent variable
Definition
the variable in an experiment that measures any effect of the manipulation
Term
experiment
Definition
a research method that is used to test causal hypotheses
Term
generalizability
Definition
how well a researcher’s findings apply to other individuals and situations
Term
independent variable
Definition
the variable in an experiment that is manipulated
Term
informed consent
Definition
research participants agree to participate after being told about aspects of the study
Term
institutional review board (IRB)
Definition
a committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that ethical standards have been met
Term
naturalistic observation
Definition
observing behavior in the environment in which the behavior typically occurs
Term
negative correlation
Definition
a relationship in which increases in one variable correspond to decreases in a second variable
Term
population of interest
Definition
the entire universe of animals or people that could be studied
Term
positive correlation
Definition
a relationship in which increases in one variable correspond to increases in a second variable
Term
predictive hypothesis
Definition
an educated guess about the relationships among variables.  Addresses the goals of description and prediction
Term
quasi-experiment
Definition
a research study that is not a true experiment because participants are not randomly assigned to the conditions of the study
Term
random assignment
Definition
participants have an equal chance of being placed in any condition of the study
Term
randomization
Definition
when all people have an equal chance of being selected to participate in a study
Term
sample
Definition
the portion of the population of interest that is selected for a study
Term
sample of convenience
Definition
groups of people who are easily accessible to the researcher
Term
cognitive interview
Definition
use of various cues and strategies to improve the memory of eyewitnesses
Term
consolidation
Definition
process by which relatively permanent memories are formed in the brain
Term
constructive processing
Definition
reorganizing or updating memories on the basis of logic, reasoning, or the addition of new information
Term
curve of forgetting
Definition
a graph that shows the amount of memorized information remembered after varying lengths of time
Term
declarative memory
Definition
that part of long-term memory containing specific factual information
Term
disuse
Definition
theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not periodically used or retrieved
Term
echo
Definition
a brief continuation of sensory activity in the auditory system after a sound is heard
Term
eidetic imagery
Definition
the ability to retain a “projected” mental image long enough to use it as a source of information
Term
elaborative rehearsal
Definition
rehearsal that links new information with existing memories and knowledge
Term
electroconvulsive shock (ECS)
Definition
an electric current passed directly through the brain, producing a convulsion
Term
encoding
Definition
converting information into a form in which it will be retained in memory
Term
encoding failure
Definition
failure to store sufficient information to form a useful memory
Term
engram
Definition
a “memory trace” in the brain
Term
episodic memory
Definition
a subpart of declarative memory that records personal experiences that are linked with specific times and places
Term
explicit memory
Definition
a memory that a person is aware of having; a memory that is consciously retrieved
Term
feeling of knowing
Definition
a feeling that allows people to predict beforehand whether they will be able to remember something
Term
flashbulb memories
Definition
memories created at times of high emotion that seem especially vivid
Term
hippocampus
Definition
a brain structure associated with emotion and the transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term memory
Term
icon
Definition
a mental image or visual representation
Term
implicit memory
Definition
a memory that a person does not know exists; a memory that is retrieved unconsciously
Term
information bits
Definition
meaningful units of information, such as numbers, letters, words, or phrases
Term
information chunks
Definition
information bits grouped into larger units
Term
interference
Definition
the tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of older memories, and the reverse
Term
internal images
Definition
mental images or visual depictions used in memory and thinking
Term
long-term memory (LTM)
Definition
the memory system used for relatively permanent storage of meaningful information
Term
maintenance rehearsal
Definition
silently repeating or mentally reviewing information to hold it in short-term memory
Term
massed practice
Definition
a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption
Term
memory
Definition
the mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing, altering, and retrieving information
Term
memory cue
Definition
any stimulus associated with a particular memory.  Memory cues usually enhance retrieval
Term
memory decay
Definition
the fading or weakening of memories assumed to occur when memory traces become weaker
Term
memory task
Definition
any task designed to test or assess memory
Term
memory traces
Definition
physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that take place when memories are stored
Term
mnemonic
Definition
any kind of memory system or aid
Term
negative transfer
Definition
mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another
Term
network model
Definition
a model of memory that views it as an organized system of linked information
Term
positive transfer
Definition
mastery of one task aids learning or performing another
Term
priming
Definition
facilitating the retrieval of an implicit memory by using cues to activate hidden memories
Term
proactive interference
Definition
the tendency for old memories to interfere with the retrieval of newer memories
Term
procedural memory
Definition
long-term memories of conditioned responses and learned skills
Term
recall
Definition
to supply or reproduce memorized information with a minimum of external cues
Term
recoding
Definition
reorganizing or modifying information to assist storage in memory
Term
recognition memory
Definition
an ability to correctly identify previously learned information
Term
redintegrative memories
Definition
memories that are reconstructed or expanded by starting with one memory and then following chains of association to other, related memories
Term
relearning
Definition
learning again something that was previously learned.  Used to measure memory of prior learning
Term
repression
Definition
unconsciously pushing unwanted memories out of awareness
Term
retrieval
Definition
recovering information from storage in memory
Term
retroactive interference
Definition
the tendency for new memories to interfere with the retrieval of old memories
Term
sensory memory
Definition
the first stage of memory, which holds an exact record of incoming information for a few second or less
Term
serial position effect
Definition
the tendency to make the most errors in remembering the middle items of an ordered list
Term
short-term memory (STM)
Definition
the memory system used to hold small amounts of information for relatively brief time periods
Term
spaced practice
Definition
a practice schedule that alternates study periods with brief rests
Term
state-dependent learning
Definition
memory influenced by one’s bodily state at the time of learning and at the time of retrieval.  Improved memory occurs when the bodily states match
Term
storage
Definition
holding information in memory for later use
Term
suppression
Definition
a conscious effort to put something out of mind or to keep it from awareness
Term
tip-of-the-tongue state
Definition
the feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable
Term
working memory
Definition
another name for short-term memory, especially when it is used for thinking and problem solving
Term
avoidance conditioning
Definition
a situation in which a response can prevent the delivery of an aversive stimulus, such as when a rat learns to jump over a barrier to avoid a shock
Term
classical conditioning
Definition
a set of procedures used to investigate how organisms learn about the signaling properties of events.  Classical conditioning involves learning relations between events – conditioned and unconditioned stimuli – that occur outside of one’s control
Term
conditioned inhibition
Definition
learning that an event signals the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
Term
conditioned reinforcer
Definition
a stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through prior learning
Term
conditioned response (CR)
Definition
the acquired response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the unconditioned stimulus
Term
conditioned stimulus (CS)
Definition
the neutral stimulus that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus during classical conditioning
Term
discriminative stimulus
Definition
the stimulus situation that sets the occasion for a response to be followed by reinforcement or punishment
Term
escape conditioning
Definition
a situation in which a response can reduce or eliminate an unpleasant stimulus, such as when a rat escapes an ongoing shock by jumping over a barrier
Term
extinction
Definition
presenting a conditioned stimulus repeatedly, after conditioning, without the unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a loss of pairing
Term
fixed-interval (FI) schedule
Definition
a schedule in which the reinforcement is delivered for the first response that occurs following a fixed interval of time
Term
fixed-ratio (FR) schedule
Definition
a schedule in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is fixed and does not change
Term
habituation
Definition
the decline in the tendency to respond to an event that has become familiar through repeated exposure
Term
law of effect
Definition
if a response in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying consequence, it will be strengthened.  If a response in a particular situation is followed by an unsatisfying consequence, it will be weakened
Term
learning
Definition
a relatively permanent change in behavior, or potential behavior, that results from experience
Term
modeling
Definition
the natural tendency to imitate the behavior of significant others
Term
negative punishment
Definition
an event that, when removed after a response, lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again
Term
negative reinforcement
Definition
an event that, when removed after a response, increases the likelihood of that response occurring again
Term
observational learning
Definition
learning by observing the experience of others
Term
operant conditioning
Definition
a procedure for studying how organisms learn about the consequences of their own voluntary actions (also called instrumental conditioning)
Term
orienting response
Definition
an inborn tendency to notice and respond to novel or surprising events
Term
partial reinforcement schedule
Definition
a schedule in which reinforcement is delivered only some of the time after the response has occurred
Term
positive punishment
Definition
an event that, when presented after a response, lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again
Term
positive reinforcement
Definition
an event that, when presented after a response, increases the likelihood of that response
Term
punishment
Definition
consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again
Term
reinforcement
Definition
response consequences that increase the likelihood of responding in a similar way again
Term
schedule of reinforcement
Definition
a rule that an experimenter uses to determine when particular responses will be reinforced
Term
second-order conditioning
Definition
a procedure in which an established conditioned stimulus is used to condition a second neutral stimulus
Term
sensitization
Definition
increased responsiveness, or sensitivity, to an event that has been repeated
Term
shaping
Definition
a procedure in which reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response
Term
spontaneous recovery
Definition
the recovery of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus
Term
stimulus discrimination
Definition
responding differently to a new stimulus than how one responds to an established conditioned stimulus
Term
stimulus generalization
Definition
responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established conditioned stimulus
Term
unconditioned response (UR)
Definition
the observable response that is produced automatically, prior to training, on presentation of an unconditioned stimulus
Term
unconditioned stimulus (US)
Definition
a stimulus that automatically leads to an observable response prior to any training
Term
variable-interval (VI) schedule
Definition
a schedule in which the allotted time before a response will yield reinforcement varies from trial to trial
Term
variable-ratio (VR) schedule
Definition
a schedule in which a certain number of responses are required for reinforcement, but the number of required responses typically changes
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