Experimental method= aims to discover cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating independent variables and observing the effects on the dependent variable

Independent variable=factors that are manipulated

Dependent variable= outcomes of an experiement dependent on the independent variable

Experimental group= group that receives the treatment

Control group= group that doesn't receive treatment

Random Assignment= method of assigning research subjects at random to experimental or control groups to balance these groups on characteristics of people that comprise them.

Selection Factor= type of bias in which difference between experimental and control groups result from differences in the type of participants in the groups, not from the independedt variable.

Blind= being unaware of whther one has received treatment.

Placebo= inert medication for control groups

Single-blind placebo-control study= subjects are randomly assigned to treatment conditions in which they receive either an  active drug or a placebo, but kept blind to which they receive

Internal Validity= degree to which manipulation of the independent variable can be causally related to changes in the dependent variables

External Validity= degree to which experimental results can be generalized to other settings and conditions.

Construct Validity= degree to which treatment effects can be accounted for by the theoretical mechanisms represented in the independent variables.

Ethics are a set of moral principles.

Ethics principles are designed to promote the dignity of the individual, protect human welfare, and preserve scientific integrity.

Informed consent= subjects should receive enough information about an experiment beforehand to decide freely whether to participate.

Confidentiality= protection of the identity of participants by keeping records secure and not disclosing their identies.

1. Unusualness
   • panic when entering a public area.
2. Social deviance
   • whatever is not considered normal in a society
3. Faulty perceptions or interpretations of reality
   • seeing or hearing things
4. Significant personal distress
   • anxiety, fear, depression
5. Maladaptive or self-defeating behavior
   • limits ability to function in expected roles
6. Dangerousness
   • dangerous to oneself or others

• Twin studies
  • MZ=100% genetic overlap
    • good for environmental influences
  • DZ= 50% genetic overlap
• Adoptee Studies
  • for or against a role for genetic factors in the appearance of psychological traits and disorders.

Define the following terms:

-genes

-chromosomes

-genotype

-phenotype

-proband

genes= basic building blocks of heredity

chromosomes= rod=shaped structures that house our genes, found in the nuclei of the body's cells.

genotype= set of traits specified by out genetic code

phenotype= observable or expressed traits.

proband=the case first diagnosed of a given disorder

modern era of treatment began with Pussin and Pinel in the late 18th and early 19th century. people who behave anormally suffer from diseases and should be treated humanely.

Pussin=placed in charge of ward for "incurably insane". first official to unchain the inmates. he treated them nicely so they were manageable and calm. forbade staff from treating inmates harshly

Pinel=became medical director of incurables ward in 1793.stopped harsh practices (bleeding and purging), moved inmates to sunny rooms. spent hours talking to inmates.

Rush=signed the Declaration of Independence. Father of American psychiatry. madness is caused by engorgement of blood vessels to brain. recommended bleeding, purging, ice=cold baths. advanced humane treatment. favored the therapeutic use of occupational therapy, music, and travel. his hospital became first in the US to admit patients for psychological disorders.

Dix=traveled the country complaining about the deplorable conditions in jails and almshouses where mentally disturbed people were placed. 32 hospitals devoted to treating people with psychological disorders were established throughout the US.

trephination= drilling of the skull to provide an outlet for spirits to escape. some people survived this practice. may have also been a simple form of surgery to remove shattered pieces of bone or blod clots that resulted from head injuries.

hippocrates= illnesses of the body and mind were the result of natural causes, not possesstion by supernatural spirits. health depended on the balance of humors -phlegm, black bile, blood, yellow bile. inbalance accounted for abnormal behavior.

Lethargic or sluggish=excess of phlegm

Depression= overabundance of black bile

cheerful, confident= excess of blood

quick-tempered= excess of yellow bile

Galen adopted and expanded on his teachings

Medieval times=belief in supernatural causes increased influence and dominated medieval thought. abnormal behaviors were a sign of possession by evil spirits or the devil. Roman Catholic Church. treatment for possession was exorcism.

Witchcraft= times of massive persecutions, particularily women, who were accused of witchcraft. witches made pacts with the devil. water-float test. guilty-->float, innocent --> drown. modern scholars believed witches were people with psychological disorders. accusations of witchcraft appeared to be a convenient way of disposing social nuisances and political rivals, seizing property suppressing heresy

internal validity= observed changes in the dependent variables can be causally realated to the independent variable.

depressed people taking a drug to make them feel better

external validity= generalizabiligy of results of an experimental study to oter subjects, setting, and times.

effects of a new antidepressant medication on a sample of people who are depressed can help people in general who are depressed.

construct validity= degree to which treatment effects can be accounted for by the theoretical mechanisms represented in the independent variables.

the drug created did was it was intended to do. antidepressnt helped people who were depressed.

random sample= each member of the population of interest has an equal probability of selection.

want to be sure that the results of an experiment accurately represent the population that they want to study.

may have to repeat the process in different areas so the overall sample can approxiamte the general US population.

abnormal behavior results from a distorted concept of the self.

unconditional positive regard= parents prizing children and showing them that they are worthy of love irrespective of their behavior at any given time.

conditional positive regard= parents accept children only when they behave in the way the parents want them to behave.

-children learn to diown all thoughts, feelings, behaviors their parents have rejected.

-become strangers to their true selves--distordted self-concept.

channel psychological energy toward continued denial and self-defense. result is frustration and dissatisfaction. sets the stage for abnormal behavior.

psychoanalytic theory= belief that the roots of psychological problems involve unconscious motives and conflicts that can be traced back to childhood.

conscious= corresponds to our present awareness.

preconscious= memories that are not in awareness, but can be brought into awareness by focusing on them. (phone number)

unconscious= largest part of the mind. contents can only be brought to awareness with great difficulty, if at all. repository of our basic instincts.

????????????????

classical conditioning= Ivan Pavlov. experiment with dog.

unconditoned stimulus (US)= food

unconditioned response (UR)= salivating

conditioned stimulus (CS)= bell

conditioned response (CR)= salivating when bell is rung

operant conditioning= B.F. Skinner. responses are acquired and strengthened by their consequences.

reinforcement= changes in the environment that increase the frequency of the reponse that it follow.

positive reinforcers= rewards, boost the frequency of a behavior when they are introduced.

negative reinforcers= increase the frequency of behavior when they are removed.

punishment= aversive stimuli that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow.

Carl Jung= analytical psychology. understanding human behavior must incorporate the facts of self-awareness and self-direction as well as the impulses of the id and mechanisms of defense.

archetypes= refect on the history of our species.(God, nurturing mother). influence our thoughts, dreams, emotions.

Alfred Adler= people are basically driven by an inferiority complex. lead to powerful drive for superiority.

creative self= self-aware aspect of personality that strives to overcome obstacles and develop the individual's potential.

Karen Horney= importance of child-parent relationships in the development of emotional problems.

basic anxiety= feeling of being isolated and helpless when parents are harsh or uncaring.

basic hostility=children who harbor deep-seated resentment toward their parents

Heinz Harman

ego psychology= ego has energy and motives of its own.

Erik Erikson= focused on psychosocial development. more importance to social relationships and formation of personal identity. personalities continue to be shaped throughout adulthood.

Margaret Mahler= the process of separating from the mother during the first 3 years of life as crucial to personality development.

object-relations theory= how children come to develop symbolic representations of important others in their lives.

-thes symbolic representations come to influence our perceptions and behavior.

-her aim was to help clients separate their own ideas and feelings from those of the introjected objects so they could develop as individuals.

1. Genes do not dictate behavioral outcomes.
   • genetics alone does not account for schizophrenia or any other psychological disorder.
2. Genetic factors create a predisposition or likelihood that certain behaviors or disorders will develop.
   • genes do not directly cause psychological disorders.
3. Multigenic determinism affects psychological disorders.
   • not one gene causes disorders.
4. Genetic factors and environmental influence interact with each other in shaping our personalities and determining our vulnerability to a range of psychological disorders.
   • nature and nurture act together.

Central Nervous System= The body's master control unit.

Spinal Cord= A column of nerves between the brain and peripheral nervous system.

Brain= Divided into three major parts; the lower part or hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.

Peripheral Nervous System= The body's link to the outside world.

The Autonomic Nervous System= Regulates involuntary bodily processes (heart rate, respiration, digestion, pupil contraction)

Sympathetic Nervous System= gets you ready for action.

Parasympathetic Nervous System= promotes digestion and bodily processes.

The Somatic Nervous System= Carries sensory information from sensory organs to the CNS and relays motor commands to muscles; voluntary movements

Sociocultural theorist seek causes of abnormal behavior in the failures of society rather then in the person.

income level or socioeconomic status must be considered when comparing rates of diagnoses.

Hispanic Americans and Black American tended to experience more persistent mental disorders than European Americans

Native Americans= the most impoverished ethnic group. alcohol dependence, PTSD, depression. death rate to suicide among adolescents is 4x as high.

- seek help from traditional healers rather than mental health professionals.

Asian Americans= economically disadvantaged. suffer from lots of physical diseases and mental disorders. hawaiians die at younger age. hypertension, cancer, heart disease. suicide among males, alcoholism, drug abuse, higer rates of antisocial behavior.

Strengths= casinos brought wealth and children became better behaved.

Weaknesses

Social Causation Model= people from lower socioeconomic groups are at greater risk of severe behavior problems because living in poverty subjects them to a greater level of social stress.

downward drift hypothesis= problem behaviors lead people to drift downward in social class.

examines the contributions of multiple factors representing biological, psychological, and sociocultural domains, as well as interactions, in the development of psychological disorders.

Diathesis-Stress Model= first used for schizophrena. stronger the diathesis, the less stress to trigger the disorder.

Strength/weakness= psychological disorders or other patterns of abnormal behavior are complex phenomena that arise from multiple cases. different people may develop the same disorder based on different sets of causal influences.

Mental disorders involve either:

-emotional distress

-significantly impaired functioning

-or behavior that places people at risk for

-personal suffering

-pain

-disability

-death.

Axis I:Clinical Disorders and Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention

-anxiety disorders, mood disorders, schizophrenia, psychotic disorders, adjustment disorders, relationship problems, academis or occupational disorders. depression after surgery.

Axis II: Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation

-antisocial, paranoid, narcissistic, borderline personality disorders

Axis III: General Medical Conditions

-hypothyroidism --> direct cause of mood disorder.

-medical conditions that affect the understanding or treatment of a mental disorder.

-presence of heart condition may determine whether a course of drug therapy should be used with a depressed person.

Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems.

-job loss, divorce, homelessness, death, war.

Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning

-rates the client's current level of psychological, social, an occupational functioning.

Clinical Interview= most widely used means of assessment. face-to-face interaction.

Topics covered:

-Identifying data= age, gender, address

-Description of the presenting problem

-Psychosocial history= developmental history: educationsl, social, occupational, early family relationships.

-Medical/Psychiatric History= recurrent episode of previous problem?

-Medical Problems/ Medication

Structured Interview= follows a pre-set series of questions in a particular order.

Unstructured Interview= clinician adopts his or her own syle of questioning.

Advantages=successfully discriminates between psychiatric patients and controls and between people with different psychological disorders. (anxiety vs. depression)

Disadvantages=scores cannt be used to establish a diagnosis. cannot provide diagnostic judgments consistent with the current version of the DSM system.

People project their own psychological needs, drives, motives, much of which lie in the unconscious, onto their interpretations of ambiguous stimuli.

Rorschach Test= Hermann Roarschach. 5 are black/white, 5 are color.

-entire blot= able to integate events in meaningful ways.

-minor details of blot= obsessive-compulsive

-white space=stubborness

-Reality Testing= ability to perceive the world accurately and to distinguish reality from fantasy.

-movement= intelligence, creativity.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)=Henry Murray. series of cards depicting and ambiguous scene. client's reponse will reflect their experiences and outlooks on life.

Advantage

-direct observation does not rely on the client's self-reports

-can record and analyze behaviors.

Disadvantage

-lack of consunsus in defining problems in behavioral terms.

-lack or reliability, inconsistency

-response biases

-reactivity= tendency for the behavior being observed to be influenced by the way in which it is measured.

Physiological Measurement= study of people's physiological responses.

-anxiety --> sweating, rapid heart rate.

EEG=record of the electrical activity of the brain

EMG= monitors muscle tension through sensors attached to targeted muscle groups.

CT Scan= reveals abnormalities in shap and structure that my be suggestive of lesions, blood clots, or tumors.

PET Scan= study the functioning of various parts of the brain. tracer is mixed with glucose and injected into the bloodstream.

MRI=reveal brain abnormalities associated with psychological disorders.

fMRI=identify parts of the brain that become active when people engage in particular tasks (vision, memory, speech)

BEAM= uses computer to analyze brain wave patterns and reveal areas of relative activity and inactivity from moment to moment.

Researchers need to disentangle psychopathology from sociocultural factors

interviewers ust recognize the importance of taking language preferences into account when conducting multicultural assessment.

content validity= degree to which its content represents the behavors associated with the trait in quesiton.

Criterion validity= degree to which the assessment technique correlates with and independent, external criterion of what the technique is intended to assess.

-used to predict future performance or behavior.

Construct Validity= degree to which a test corresponds to the theoretical model of the underlying construct or trait it purports to measure.

phenothiazines= helped quell the most flagrant behavior patterns associated with schizophrenia

-reduced the need for indefinite hospital stays permitted patients to be discharged.

The exodus left tens of thousands of marginally functioning peole in communities that lacked adequate housing and other forms of suport.

Clinical Psychologist= doctoral degree.4 years graduate. year-long internship.doctoral dissertation. administering psychological tests, diagnosing psychological disorders. practicing psychotherapy.

Counseling Psychologist= doctoral degree. graduate training. couseling to people with psychological problems. adjusting to college.

Psychiatrist=MD. residency. prescribe drugs. ECT. practice psychotherapy

Clinical or psychiatric social worker= MD in social work. help people with schizophrenia make a more successful adjustment to the community once they leave the hospital.

Psychoalanyts= psychiatrists or psychologists who have completed extensive traingin in psychoanalysis. unergo psychoanalysis themselves.

Counselors= MD. schools, college testing. rehabilitation. substance abuse.milder forms of disturbed behavior.

Psychiatric Nurse= RNs. MD in psychiatric nursing. group mental practice. treat people suffering from severe psychological disorders.

Advantage=helps patients gain insight into, and resolve, the unconscious conflicts believed to lie at the root of abnormal behavior.

Disadvantage=focus more on the client's presenct relationships and encourage the client to make adaptive behavior changes.

Focuses on the client's subjective, conscious experiences.

Person-Centered Therapy= help clients become more aware and accepting of their true selves. 

nondirective= client takes the lead and directs couse of therapy.

reflection= restating the client's expressed feelings without interpreting them or passing judgment on them.

Unconditional positive regard= expression of unconditional acceptance of another person's basic worth as a person.

Empathy= understand someone's experiences and feelings from that person's point of view.

Genuineness= ability to recognize and express one's true feelings.

Congruence= fit between one's thoughts, behaviors, and feelings.

attempts to integrate therapeutic techniques that help individuals make bhanges not only in their overt behavior but also in the underlying thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes.

helping clients identify and correct the maladaptive beliefs and negative, automatic thoughts that may underlie their emotional problems.

agoraphobia and shopping alone

great results of treating depression, panic disorder, anxiety, social phobia.

Therapist draw on techniques and teachings of multiple therapeutic approaces.

incormporating principles and techniques from different therapeutic orientation

Technical Eclectics= draw on techniques from different school of therapy without adopting the theoretical positions that spawned the techniques.

Integrative Ecletics= integrate diverse theoretical approaches that they believe are most likely to work with a given client.

Managed care systems typically impse limits n the number of treatment sessions they will approve for payment and the feel they will allow for reimbursement.

limits lengths of stay. low quality

African Americans= coping methods for racism

Antianxiety Drugs= reduce states of muscle tension.

-Valium, Xanax

Antipsychotic Drugs= treat schizophrenia, hallucinatioons, delusions, confusions.

-Thorazine, Mellaril

Antidepressants= increase the availability of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin in the brain.

-Elavil, Nardil.