Term
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Definition
| The study of mental activity as an information-processing problem |
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Term
| 2 key concepts for cognitive psych |
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Definition
1. Information-processing depends on internal representations
2. Mental representations undergo transformations |
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Term
| Tasks are composed of a set of mental operations. A mental operation involves ____ (3 parts) |
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Definition
1. Taking a representation as an input
2. Performing a process on it
3. Therefore, produces a new rep = output |
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Definition
| Computers used to simulate (reproduce) behavior or cognitive processes |
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Definition
| The study of physiological processes of the nervous system |
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Term
Issues with Single-Cell recording
(2 answers) |
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Definition
1. Hard to penetrate a single cell w/out damaging it
2. When recording extracellularly, could be recording activity of several neurons |
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Term
| Functional maps describe similarities and differences b/t ____ in specific _____ regions |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
area of external space where stimulus must be presented in order to activate a cell
- neighboring cells overlap receptive fields |
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Definition
topographic representations in vision
- maps an external dimension (spatial location) to a neural representation of that dimension |
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Term
| What are multiunit recordings used to understand? |
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Definition
| Help us understand the function of an area by IDing correlations in firing patterns of groups of neurons |
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Definition
| selective removal of parts of brain to see how B is altered |
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| Issues w/brain lesion experiments |
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Definition
1. areas connected to lesioned area might be altered as well
2. Person might create a compensatory strategy to minimize the effects of lesions which might alter B too |
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Term
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Definition
1. aspiration (suction)
2. electric charge to destroy tissue = messy
3. Neurochemical w/ a drug that selectively destroys cells that use a certain transmitter
4. reversible lesions w/ chems that produce transient disruptions |
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Definition
| certain genes manipulated so they are no longer expressed |
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Definition
A branch of medicine that focuses on the function and dysfunction of the nervous system
- used to understand how brain damage affects B |
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Definition
Uses the fact that the absorption of xray radiation is correlated with tissue density (most dense show up lightest, least dense show up darkest)
- reconstructs 2D image into 3D
- hard to discriminate 2 objects closer than 5mm (ex gray vs white matter on cortex) |
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Term
| MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) |
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Definition
| Uses magnetic field to orient spinning protons in H atoms nucleus' parallel to magnetic force |
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Term
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Definition
Studies anatomical structure of axon tracts that form white matter
- measures density and motion of H2O i axons
- can image orientation of axon bundles |
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Definition
Smallest unit of 3D data that can be represented in an MRI
- like a pixel, but 3D |
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Definition
| imaging method used to evaluate circulatory system in brain |
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Term
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Definition
buildup of fatty tissues in heart breaks free and enter's brains vessels
- when blocks blood flow to brain = stroke! |
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Term
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Definition
| a mass of tissue that grows abnormally and has no physiological function |
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Term
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Definition
1. Gliomas: start w/abnormal growth of glia
2. Meningiomas: originate in meninges
3. Metastatic tumors: originate in noncerebral structures and invades bloodstream to reach brain |
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Term
| Degenerative and infectious disorders |
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Definition
- Assoc. w/genetic aberrations and envi agents
- gradual onset of symptoms
- ex. incl. Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, AIDS, Herpes |
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Term
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Definition
1. Closed: skull intact but brain damaged
2. Open: skull penetrated |
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Term
| 2 types of Closed head injury situations |
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Definition
1. Coup: blow hits just below forehead
2. Countercoup: brain bounces back against skull --> occipital damage |
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Definition
Characterized by excessive+abnormally patterned activity in brain
- seizure = main symptom |
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Term
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Definition
| surgery to treat neurological disorders |
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Term
| Callosotomy/Split-Brain Procedure |
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Definition
| removal of corpus callosum |
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Term
| DBS - Deep Brain Stimulation |
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Definition
implants electrodes in basal ganglia to produce signals to trigger neural activity
- used to treat ppl w/Parkinson's |
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Term
| Single Dissociation experiment |
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Definition
| 2 groups tested on 2 tasks and a b/t group diff is apparent in only one task |
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Term
| Double Dissociation experiment |
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Definition
Group 1 impaired on task X and Group 2 impaired on task Y
- strongest evidence that a patient has a selective deficit in a certain cognitive function |
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Term
| TMS - Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation |
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Definition
noninvasive focal stimulation of brain
- magnetic field causes neurons to fire
- can be used to induce virtual lesions (usu. combined w/fMRI) |
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Term
| EEG - Electroencephalography |
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Definition
uses surface electrodes to measure activity of pops of neurons (as opposed to single-cell recording)
- used to find an Event related potential |
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Term
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Definition
signal that reflects neural activity related to sensory, motor or cognitive events = show stereotyped responses makes it easy to find abnormalities
- created from avgd traces of several EEGs |
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Term
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Definition
| an electrical event in a spherical volume of homogenously conducting material produces one unique pattern of electrical activity on the surface of the sphere |
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Term
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Definition
| Given a particular pattern, it is impossible to figure the distribution of the charge w/in the sphere that caused it (infinite # of charge distributions in the sphere could make the same pattern) |
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Term
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Definition
| Modeling technique to solve inverse problem |
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Term
| Why is vision called remote sensing/ exteroceptive perception? |
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Definition
| enables us to detect information from a distance |
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Term
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Definition
| Light reflected from objects > passes thru lens > image inverted and projected on retina (back surface of eye) > retina deep layer = filled w/photoreceptors = translate light into neuronal signal w/photopigments |
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Term
| 2 types of photoreceptors |
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Definition
1. Rods: sensitive to low levels of light energy; good for night
2. Cones: active during day, respond to bright light, necessary for color vision
"red" "green" or "blue" cones according to the response of their photopigments to diff wavelengths of light |
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Term
| Cones most densely packed in ____ (near center of retina) |
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Definition
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Term
| From eye to ctrl nervous system |
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Definition
| 260 mil photoreceptors > 2 mil ganglion cells > axons of ganglion are the optic nerve > optic nerve splits into temporal and nasal sides (temporal stays on same side; nasal crosses to opp hemi at optic chiasm) > optic nerves to LGN or to superior colliculus or to pulvinar nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
from retina to lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus
- pathway of 90% of axons in optic nerve |
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Term
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Definition
from retina to superior colliculus
<10% of axons in optic nerve follow this pathway |
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Term
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Definition
| from LGN to V1 in occipital lobe |
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Term
| V1 (Primary visual cortex) is also called |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Specialization hypothesis (for vision) |
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Definition
| each visual area elaborates on a diff aspect of initial info in V1 and then integrates it (think of model that gallant drew in class) |
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Term
| Area MT = V5 sensitive to... |
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Definition
"middle temporal" area in macaques
- sensitive to movement and direction but not color! |
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Term
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Definition
color;
used to provide info about an object's shape |
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Term
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Definition
| true colorblindness; only see shades of grey |
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Term
| Dichromats/Red-green colorblind ppl are missing what wavelength photopigments? |
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Definition
| short wavelength photopigments = blue-yellow |
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Term
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Definition
| have all 3 photopigments BUT are abnormally sensitive to just one |
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Term
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Definition
| "motion blindness" = don't see the progression of motion just the end result |
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Term
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Definition
| lesion of V1 restricted to only 1/2 of visual field => loss of perception only on contralateral side of space |
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Term
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Definition
| smaller lesions produce more discrete regions of blindness |
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Term
| What subcortical structure is important for eye movements (saccades)? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| residual ability to locate stimuli despite being blind! |
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Term
| MEG Magnetoencephalography |
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Definition
uses avg of active neurons' magnetic field traces to obtain ERFs (Event-related fields)
Positives: same temp res as w/ERPs + localizes source of signal = good spatial res
Negatives: only able to detect current flow if it is oriented parallel to surface of skull |
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Term
| PET Positron Emission Tomography |
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Definition
Assumes ^bloodflow to brain regions w/heightened neural activity
- 2 injections of radioactive isotope in blood = during control and during experiment
- results reported as a change in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) b/t the 2 conditions
- shows activity in 5-10mm3 voxels |
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Term
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Definition
1. Radiowaves make protons in H atoms oscillate
2. Detector measures local energy fields that are emitted when proton returns to orientation of external magnetic field
3. Focuses on hemoglobin (carries O2)
- When deoxygenated = more paramagnetic
4. fMRI gets ratio of O2 to nonO2 hemoglobin => BOLD effect |
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Term
| BOLD effect(blood oxygenation level-dependent effect) |
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Definition
| ratio of oxygenated to deoxygenated hemoglobin |
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Term
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Definition
| Impaired perceptual recognition that can't be attributed to impairments in basic sensory processes |
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Term
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Definition
a failure of perception that is limited to the visual modality
- can perceive properties (color, motion) but can't ID objects or their uses
- Visual info is registered at the cortical level |
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Term
| Perception and recognition are different things! |
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Definition
Perception and recognition are same or different?
- see patient G.S. |
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Term
| What are 2 names for the "what" pathway for visual perception? |
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Definition
-Ventral
-Occiptotemporal |
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Term
| What is the ventral visual pathway important for? |
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Definition
| object perception and recognition |
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Term
| What are the names of the 2 cortical pathways for visual perception? |
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Definition
1) Ventral/Occipitoptemporal/"What" pathway
2) Dorsal/Occipitoparietal/"Where" pathway |
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Term
| What is the dorsal visual pathway important for? |
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Definition
Spatial perception
- detects presence of stimulus, esp. those that just entered field of view
- guides interactions w/objects based on their location |
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Term
| What are 2 names form the "where" pathway of visual perception? |
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Definition
- Dorsal
- Occipitoparietal |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| inability to name objects |
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Term
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Definition
| person can recognize objects but can't use visual info to guide their actions |
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Term
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Definition
our ability to recognize an object in different situations, such as
- viewpoint changes
- changes in illumination of an object
- other things covering part of the view of an object |
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Term
| View-Dependent Frame of Reference |
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Definition
perception depends on recognizing an object from a certain viewpoint
- useful for understanding perception if we compare known info to a novel view of an object |
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Term
| View-invariant Frame of Reference |
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Definition
Sensory input defines basic properties;
-Other properties are defined with respect to the basic properties |
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Term
| Repetition-Suppression Effect |
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Definition
a neural response is more efficient and faster when the pattern has been recently activated
--> Lower BOLD response |
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Term
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Definition
the type of neuron that can recognize a complex object
- "grandmother cell" = a gnostic unit that becomes excited when a specific object (i.e. one's grandmother) comes into view
- Many issues with this idea of neural representation |
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Term
| Ensemble/population Hypothesis of Recognition |
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Definition
| Recognition is due to the collective activation of many units |
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Term
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Definition
Failure in object recognition linked to problems in perceptual processing
- this is a ventral stream disorder |
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Term
| Apperceptive agnosia linked to damage in Right Hemi or Left? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
patients have normal vision representations but cannot use this info to recognize things
- not attributed to perceptual abilities |
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Term
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Definition
| neurological syndrome where ability to read is disrupted |
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Term
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Definition
Disruption in ability to read resulting from a neurological disturbance (stroke, etc)
-usu. in occipitoparietal region of L hemi |
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Term
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Definition
| visual disorder that involves difficulty integrating the parts of an object into a coherent whole |
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Term
| Category-specific Deficits |
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Definition
recognition impairment restricted to a certain class of objects
ex. living vs. nonliving objects |
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Term
| Why would a person recognize a nonliving object and not recognize a living object (such as a neighbor)? |
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Definition
| remember nonliving objects by also remembering the functional side of them |
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Term
| Cells in what area are preferentially activated by faces? |
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Definition
Superior temporal sulcus +
Inferotemporal gyrus |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| inability to produce volitional movement |
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Term
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Definition
a brainstem nucleus that is part of the basal ganglia
- cells here are a primary source of dopamine |
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Term
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Definition
a part of the body that can move
- distal example: arms/hands and legs
- proximal example: neck, trunk |
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Term
| What are 2 types of elastic muscle fibers? |
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Definition
| flexors and extenders of the effector |
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Term
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Definition
Control primary interaction of muscles and nervous system
- originate in spinal cord, exit thru ventral root, terminate in muscle fibers
- release neurotransmitter acetylcholine to make muscle fibers contract
- get input from brain and sensory fibers in muscles |
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Term
| What neurotransmitter do alpha motor neurons release to make muscle fibers contract? |
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Definition
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Term
| Brainstem contain what structures that are important for movement? (name 2 *groups*) |
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Definition
1) 12 Cranial nerves (control reflexes)
2) Extrapyramidal tracts (control spinal activity) |
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Term
| What is the primary source of control over spinal activity? Where do they originate and project to? |
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Definition
| Extrapyramidal tracts which originate from nuclei in brainstem that project to the spinal cord. |
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Term
| Describe basic cerebellar pathway |
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Definition
Cortex receives most sensory input + input from association areas
--> relays back to nuclei inside cerebellum
--> modulates activity in extrapyramidal tracts or relays back to thalamus to influ. motor + frontal cortex |
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Term
| What are the 5 nuclei that compose the basal ganglia? |
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Definition
1) caudate
2) putamen
3) Subthalamic nucleus
4) Globus pallidus
5) Substantia nigra |
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Term
| What nucleus of the basal ganglia does most output go through and where does it go? |
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Definition
| globus pallidus projects to motor cortex and frontal regions |
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Term
| Where does the corticospinal tract originate and go out to? |
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Definition
from M1 (primary motor cortex) to alpha motor neurons or spinal interneurons
- called pyramidal tracts (but not just from pyramidal cells!) |
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Term
| What is another name for the corticospinal tract? |
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Definition
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Term
| What important cortex area does Brodmann Area 4 contain? |
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Definition
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Term
| Brodmann area 6 contains what 2 secondary motor areas? |
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Definition
1) Premotor cortex (PMC)
2) Supplementary motor cortex (SMA) |
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Term
| Which Brodmann area controls eye movements? |
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Definition
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Term
| The production of speech movements involves what 3 parts of the brain? |
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Definition
1) Broca's area
2) insula
3) posterior inferior frontal gyrus |
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Term
| What kind of representation maps are in primary and secondary motor areas? |
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Definition
| somatotopic representations |
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Term
| Does movement depend on the brain, sensory signals or feedback? |
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Definition
| no, but it will be jerky movements without feedback and planning |
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Term
| Neurons in spinal cord are also called _____ ______ ______ because they trigger specific patterns of muscle activity when they are activated |
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Definition
| central pattern generators |
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Term
| What does "afferent" refer to? |
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Definition
| somatosensory (thru dorsal root of spinal cord |
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Term
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Definition
| are humans with severe sensory deficits |
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Term
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Definition
movements are planned in terms of the desired final location
- motor representation is based on the final position of the limbs to achieve the movement goal |
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Term
| What is motor cortex activity correlated with? (general idea of mvmt) |
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Definition
| movement directions and desired final location |
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Term
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Definition
a statistical procedure that reflects the aggregate activity across cells
- when calculated from neurons in motor cortex, we can predict the directions of a limb movement |
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Term
| An example of the hierarchy of motor control |
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Definition
Premotor cortex only codes for movement and direction
M1 also codes for muscle activity |
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Term
| Brain-machine interface (BMI) |
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Definition
| a device that uses the interpretation of neuronal signals to perform desired operations with a mechanical device outside the body (i.e. prosthetics) |
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Term
| What parts of body are affected for paraplegics? |
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Definition
Unable to use legs
- injuries are below cervical nerves |
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Term
| What parts of body are affected for quadriplegics? |
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Definition
unable to use anything below neck
- injuries are higher up in the spinal cord |
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Term
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Definition
| a distributed network of neurons that respond to one's own actions and perceived actions of others |
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Term
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Definition
self-reference
- comprehension of perceived actions involves reference to our own abilities in that action |
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Term
| Activity of mirror cells is correlated with what type of action? |
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Definition
| Goal-oriented (either your own or someone else's) |
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Term
| Internally guided tasks activate what cortical and subcortical areas? |
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Definition
| Supplementary motor area and basal ganglia |
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Term
| Externally guided tasks activate what cortical and subcortical areas? |
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Definition
| Premotor cortex, cerebellum and parietal cortex |
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Term
| Medial(SMA) vs. Lateral (PMC) involvement in learning |
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Definition
Premotor cortex (lateral) better when learning a new task
Supplementary motor cortex (medial) better after task has been learned (refines) |
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Term
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Definition
| loss of voluntary movement on the contralateral side of body (usu. from hemorrhage) |
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Term
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Definition
loss of motor skills not related to deficits in motor control
- usu. occurs w/lesions in Lhemi and parietal cortex
- usu. accompanied by some aphasia |
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Term
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Definition
| patient has a sense of the desired action but has problems executing it properly |
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Term
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Definition
patient's knowledge about the intent of an action is disrupted
- might not know what tool to use/ how to use a tool |
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Term
| What is praxis and what hemisphere is dominant in this? |
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Definition
| the representation of skilled movement; Lhemi more dominant regardless of handedness |
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Term
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Definition
| when patients w/lesions of SMA reach out and grab objects w/affected arm even when they aren't supposed to |
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Term
| What are the 3 parts of the cerebellum? |
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Definition
1) Vestibulocerebellum (balance + eye mvmts)
2) Spinocerebellum (smooth ctrl of mvmt, axial muscles in trunk)
3) Neocerebellum (projects to M1, thalamus, and prefrontal cortex) |
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Term
| To what 2 nuclei of basal ganglia do most afferent fibers to basal ganglia terminate? |
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Definition
| Caudate + putamen (together they are the striatum) |
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Term
| What are some functions of the basal ganglia? |
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Definition
1) initiation of action
2) commits to one action out of many alternatives
3) reward pathway (dopamine can modify BG connections based on what rewards) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What is the main symptom of Huntington's disease? |
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Definition
| chorea (involuntary mvmts) |
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Term
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Definition
| absence of voluntary mvmts |
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Term
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Definition
| slowness in initiation and execution of mvmts |
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Term
| What causes Parkinson's disease? |
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Definition
| atrophy of dopamine neurons in substantia nigra (decreases overall cortical activity) |
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Term
| What are ways to treat Parkinson's disease? |
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Definition
1) L dopa (synthetic precursor of dopamine)
2) Pallidotomy (create lesions in globus pallidus to inhibit hyperactivity)
3) Deep brain stimulation (implants in subthalamic nucleus that send out currents to stimulate brain) |
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Term
| Shifting hypothesis of basal ganglia |
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Definition
| basal ganglia helps us shift from one mental set to another |
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