Term
| experimental method (what makes something an experiment |
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Definition
| researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable |
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Term
| expectancies and bias in experimental research/placebo effect/single- and double-blind experiments (pp. 51-52) |
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Definition
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Definition
| variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable |
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Definition
| extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and other people |
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Term
| extraneous variables (including confounding variables) |
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Definition
Extraneous variables: variables other than the IV that might affect the DV
Confounding variables: extraneous variables that vary systematically with the IV |
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Term
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Definition
| procedure ensuring that every participant has an equal chance of being in any of the experimental conditions |
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Term
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Definition
| variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable (the dependent variable) |
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Definition
| two or more variables are measured and the relationship between them (how much one can be predicted from the other) is assessed |
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| problems with correlational method (directionality and third-variable problem) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| positive vs. negative correlations |
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Definition
Positive Correlation: increased in the value of one variable are associated with increases in the value of another variable
Negative Correlation: increases in the value of one variable are associated with decreases in the value of another variable |
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Term
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Definition
the survey sample must be representative of the population in question on characteristics important to the research question (e.g., age, religion, gender)
Surveys employ random selection to ensure that everyone in population has equal chance of being selected for sample |
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Term
| the structure of the neuron (cell body, dendrites, axon, axon terminals, myelin sheath) |
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Definition
Cell Body: contains nucleus
Dendrites: Receive nerve impulses & carry impulses toward body
Axon: Single long fiber; carries impulses away from cell body
Myelin Sheath: fatty white sheath insulating neuron, makes impulse transmission more efficient |
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Term
| the firing of the neuron (the threshold of firing, the action potential, the sodium-potassium pump, polarization/depolarization/repolarization) |
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Definition
If the dendrites of a neuron receive stimulation of sufficient magnitude – if the amount of stimulation is above a certain threshold – an action potential is generated
The Action Potential: conduction of a neural impulse and depolarization
All-or-none response: The action potential either occurs at full strength, or it does not occur at all
Action potential: Conduction of a neural impulse. When an action potential is generated, the neuron is said to “fire” |
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Term
| synaptic transmission [the synapse and synaptic gap |
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Definition
| First, the neurotransmitter must be synthesized and stored in vesicles so that when an action potential arrives at the nerve ending, the cell is ready to pass it along to the next neuron. Next, when an action potential does arrive at the terminal, the neurotransmitter must be quickly and efficiently released from the terminal and into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter must then be recognized by selective receptors on the postsynaptic cell so that it can pass along the signal and initiate another action potential. Or, in some cases, the receptors act to block the signals of other neurons also connecting to that postsynaptic neuron. After its recognition by the receptor, the neurotransmitter must be inactivated so that it does not continually occupy the receptor sites of the postsynaptic cell. Inactivation of the neurotransmitter avoids constant stimulation of the postsynaptic cell, while at the same time freeing up the receptor sites so that they can receive additional neurotransmitter molecules, should another action potential arrive. |
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Term
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Definition
Neurotransmitters can have either an
excitatory or inhibitory effect on the
transmission of impulses |
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Term
| binding of neurotransmitters to receptor sites |
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Definition
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Term
| release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles |
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Definition
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Term
| excitatory vs. inhibitory action of neurotransmitters |
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Definition
| Neurotransmitters are classified as excitatory or inhibitory according to their effects on postsynaptic membranes. A neurotransmitter is called excitatory if activation of the receptor causes depolarization of the membrane and promotes action potential generation. A neurotransmitter is called inhibitory if the activation of the receptor causes hyperpolarization and depresses action potential generation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is an organic, polyatomic ion that acts as a neurotransmitter in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS) in many organisms including humans. Acetylcholine is one of many neurotransmitters in the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the only neurotransmitter used in the motor division of the somatic nervous system (sensory neurons use glutamate and various peptides at their synapses). Acetylcholine is also the principal neurotransmitter in all autonomic ganglia. |
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Term
| lock-and-key model of neurotransmitter binding |
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Definition
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Term
| neurotransmitters [ACH, endorphins, agonists (morphine, heroin, spider venom) and antagonists (Curare) |
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Definition
Curare is ACH antagonist
Spider venom is ACH agonist
Endorphins – body’s natural pain-killer (“runner’s high”)
Morphine and Heroin are agonists for Endorphins |
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Term
| the brain stem (medulla, cerebellum, thalamus) |
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Definition
Medulla – controls heartbeat and breathing
Thalamus – brain’s “sensory switchboard”
Cerebellum – coordinatesvoluntary movement |
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Term
| selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [SSRIs, e.g., Prozac (antidepressant)] |
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Definition
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Term
| the limbic system (thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus) |
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Definition
Hypothalamus – hunger, thirst, sexual behavior
Amygdala – aggression and fear
Hippocampus – explicit memory center |
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Term
| language areas in cerebral cortex (Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasias) |
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Definition
Frontal lobe – speech production, planning, making judgments, personality inhibitions
Temporal lobe – hearing, speech comprehension
Occipital lobe – vision
Broca’s Area: Input is sent to Broca’s area, which controls speech muscles via the motor cortex
Wernicke’s Area: interprets auditory code |
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Term
| the hemispheres (hemispheric specialization, research with split-brain patients, corpus callosum) |
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Definition
Left Hemisphere: Language, speech, calculation
Right Hemisphere: Nonverbal, spatial skills, recognition of faces and patterns |
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Term
| endocrine and immune systems (pp. 120-122) |
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Definition
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Term
| Stroop Effect, automatic vs. controlled process |
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Definition
Automatic Processing: Processing of information with minimal conscious awareness
Controlled Processing: Processing information at relatively high levels of conscious awareness |
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Term
| REM sleep (REM rebound, suppression of REM sleep, memory consolidation) |
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Definition
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Term
| sleep disorders- sleepwalking |
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Definition
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Term
| sleep disorders- narcolepsy |
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Definition
| irresistible and sudden attacks of REM sleep during the day |
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Term
| sleep disorders-sleep apnea |
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Definition
| the change from wakefulness to sleep causes the central nervous system to stop functioning |
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Term
| sleep disorders- night terrors |
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Definition
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Term
| sleep disorders- insomnia |
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Definition
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Term
| theories about dreaming--Freudian view |
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Definition
| people are unconsciously motivated to satisfy sexual and aggressive drives. We construct dreams that express the fulfillment of these drives, but in ways that are too indirect to recognize, because it would be psychologically shattering to have to face our darkest urges |
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Term
| theories about dreaming--activation synthesis theory |
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Definition
| random neural signals firing in the brainstem spread up to the cerebral cortex (activation). Drawing on past experiences stored in memory, the brain then constructs images and stories in an effort to make sense of these random neural signals (synthesis). |
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Term
| theories about dreaming--lucid dreaming |
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Definition
| any dream in which one is aware that one is dreaming |
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Term
| hypnosis/hypnotic dissociation (pp. 203-207) |
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Definition
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Term
| drugs: physiological vs. psychological dependence, tolerance |
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Definition
Psychological dependence: person needs the drug for a sense of well-being and becomes preoccupied with attaining it if it is no longer available
Physical dependence (addiction): drug use is needed to prevent withdrawal syndrome (intense craving for drug with compensatory reactions) |
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Term
| depressants: alcohol (release of inhibitions, alcohol myopia, role of neurotransmitters GABA and dopamine) |
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Definition
Alcohol, anti-anxiety drugs Xanax and Valium, increase activity of inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (producing a relaxing effect in central nervous system), as well as dopamine (producing pleasurable effect)
Alcohol myopia: alcohol diminishes people’s capacity to attend to multiple cues
Alcohol’s behavioral effects also stem, in part, from the user’s expectations (placebo effect) |
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Term
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Definition
| used to treat anxiety disorders and panic disorder (sudden, unexpected attacks of extreme fear and worry about these attacks). Alprazolam is in a class of medications called benzodiazepines. It works by decreasing abnormal excitement in the brain. |
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Term
| depressants: Valium (role of GABA) |
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Definition
| increase activity of inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (producing a relaxing effect in central nervous system), as well as dopamine (producing pleasurable effect) |
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Term
| stimulants: cocaine (role of neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine, increased mental/behavioral activity), |
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Definition
Amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine increase the release of excitatory neurotransmitter norepinephrine (which has a stimulating effect)
Cocaine also increases dopamine activity, which is responsible for the “high” of cocaine |
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Term
| stimulants:MDMA (“Ecstasy”, has both stimulating and hallucinatory effects, role of neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin) |
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Definition
| part stimulant, part psychedelic. Pleasure comes from increased dopamine activity, hallucinations caused by fact that it is a serotonin agonist |
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Term
| opiates: opium, heroin (endorphin agonists), morphine |
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Definition
| all serve as agonists for endorphins |
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Term
| psychedelics: LSD (hallucinatory effects, role of serotonin) |
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Definition
| a serotonin agonist, and, in addition, release of norepinephrine may cause “sensory overload” in brain |
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Term
| psychedelics: marijuana (euphoria and hallucinatory effects) |
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Definition
| active ingredient is THC, serves as agonist for anandamide, a neurotransmitter that has euphoric effects at the synapse |
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Term
| what is the goal of an experiment |
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Definition
| Main goal of an experiment: Show that there is a CAUSAL relationship between the IV and the DV |
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Term
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Definition
| ensuring that nothing else besides the IV can affect the DV (random assignment to conditions and control of extraneous variables) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| sleep stages (1-2-3-4-3-2-REM, brain wave patterns associated with these |
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Definition
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Term
| change in cycle during typical night’s sleep |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
General recuperation
Growth process
Information processing – REM sleep facilitates memory
Over the counter medications and alcohol SUPPRESS REM sleep
REM rebound |
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