1. Human connection, warmth, tenderness, belonging and acceptance

2. Autonomy, Freedom

3. Develop mastery/competence which is intrincically rewarding

4. Comprehend/extract/construst meaning out of obervations/experience (different levels of analysys--both cognitive (basic) and meaning of life (ideology, world view, etc).

5. Some sense of security/safety

Freud's theory that every person consists of is fueled/determined by biological drives NOTHING ELSE is influential except your biology (drive states).

Biology is defined by drive

• Fundamentally psychosexual in nature
• Urge for pleasure defined as infnantile sexual gratification
• aiming to achieve its gratification--result is tension reduction
• Although has aim and an object (to provide pleasure), the drive itself is objectless

Differing drive intensities between individuals

• behavior is under conscious & rational control, consciousness is the core of the mind
• altered Freudian theory by giving due to reality, culture, ego enables purposeful navigation

• a neurotic condition consisting of 2 subcategories: physical symptoms and dissociative reactions (e.g amensia, multiple personalities, etc.)
• Freud said caused by major repression

• Behavior is never accidental, psychologically determined by mental motivational causes (motivational determinism)--everything a person does is determined by their pervasive but unconscious motives
• Causes are outside of consciousness

• Bringing unconsious to conscious
• Dreams-dreamers unconscious effort to fullfill a wish that couldnt be expressed more directly (manifest & latent content)
• Free Association: person on couch, sit behing not talk and just take notes

• structural view of personality

1. ID: most closely linked to bio. processes, instincts a. life/sex (eros-pleasure, reproduction, survival, generates libido) b. thanatos: death; pleasure principle; primary process thinking
2. EGO:(balance) mediates between id impulses and superego inhibitions and reality; reality principle
3. SUPEREGO: (age 5), ideals and morals and standards of society via socialization

prelnonged parental influences, internalization of societal morals, conscience, seeks perfection and ideals, can become hugely demaning, inspires transcendence (pushing towards virtuous behavior)

• the processes through which personality works (regulated); predicated on concept of represses, unconscious impulses, and signifcance of early childhood experience
• id, ego, superego are always in DYNAMIC conflict (continuous interaction and clashing)

1. Control of unacceptable ID impulses
2. Avoidance of pain by internal conflict when doing #1
3. Attaining of harmonious integration among ID/SUPEREGO

• When defense mechanisms fail
• anxiety and conflict
• neurotic behavior expresses unconscious motives and ideas symbolically (disorders of the ego)

1. ID impulses
2. External punishment and danger
3. Objective anxiety of #2
4. repression of impulses because painful
5. partial breakdown of reoressions (if ego weak)
6. Emergence of derivatives of impulses
7. neurotic anxiety

• product of early childhood trauma and innate dispositions (weak, feeble, incompetant ego)

1. Oral (1 yr): pleasure focused on mouth, dependent/helpless fixation divided into 2 periods: a. sucking, b. biting and chewing (gullible person is stuck in this phase)
2.  Anal (2 yrs-5): shift in body pleasure to the anus (retention and expulsion of feces), toilet training-1st experience with imposed control.
3. Phallis (5): child observes differences between male and female and experiences Oedipus; castration anxiety and penis envy
4. Latency period: less overt concern with sexuality, represses memories of infantile sexuality (makes unconscious)
5. Genital Stage: capable of genuine love for others, can achience adult sexual satisfaction

• identification with the father or "aggressor" during Oedipal stage of development (phallic); motivated by the fear of harm and castration by the father

• open-ended structured testing situation; presents the individual with materials open to a wide variety of interpretations based on belief that responses reveal important aspects of respondent's personality; 
• central in psychodynamic assessment ; 
• assumes unconscious is atleast partially projected and revealed

• projective test used in psychodynamic approach
• series of inkblots on 10 cards, black/white/colored, asked what it resembles.

• projective test used in psychodyamic approach
• Murray and Morgan (1930)
• wanted to get beyond direct self-reports to tap underlying needs that might be unaware of or uncomfortable to aknowlegde
• Exam fantasises revealed by stories told to a set of pictures
• Series of pics and one blank card, people expected to interpret the ambiguos pics accordnig to their individual readiness to perceive in a certain way ("apperception")

• offers a systematic, unified view of the individual, views us as intergrated/dynamic creature
•  when underlying core personality revealed, seemingly diverse/discrepent behaviors are meaningful
• be skeptical about accuracy and usefullness of insights concluded this way

group of psychologists ub 40s/50s whose study of peers was strongly inflated by Freud and by biosocial, organismic theory stressing the integrated, whole aspects of personality; developed new model called personology

• intensive psychodynamic study of individual lives as integrated, organized units (personality is adaptable)
• Portraying persons in depth; went beyond Freud's work
• focused on long-term small samples; longitudinal data on personality development and maturation at many parts in life
• diverse tests admin., extensive autobiographical sketches, participant observation, interviewing, asked about various facets of lives
• provided rich narrative accounts or life histories
• interpreted data clinically based on objective and projective tests, autobio., reactions via interviews, etc.
• group of assessors studied each individual participant, intersubjectivity: shared @ "diagnostic council." which became the model for clinical practice

• basic needs, motives, conflicts and dynamics
• attitudes and values
• main character strengths and liabilities were inferred
• predict future behavior

• psychological desires (wishes) for particular goals/outcomes a person values
• motives dont operate regardless of context and its pressure (environmental pressures)
• a hypothesized motive that unlike hunger/thirst, do not involve specific physiological changes (Murray)
• go beyond ID

• desire for mastery & effective functioning of a tasl for its own sake (intrinsic) and may apply 2 diverse tasks 

• experience of the power of initative and exertion we experience as a sense of being an agent in the living of our lives
• only one of many motives that influence behavior
• we need to feel/be effective in our own right

• competition with a standard of excellence
• systematic scored occurance of achievement imagery in TAT stores
• they assumed that the more the stories told involved achiev. themes and concerns, the higher the level of the achievement motive
• influenced by socialization experiences especially in childhood

• Therpautic technique aimed at learning to think about one's problems more constructively and less irrationally
• reinterprete the meaning of an event in a way that allows for dealing with it 

Ego Psychologists (hint:Post-Freudian psychodynamics/chpt 9)

• proposed that the ego has crucial functions that may be relative independent of underlying conscious motives

• retained focus on psychodynamic-motivational level of analysis
• attention to diversity of human motivations and mental/emotional process after childhood
• person much more competent and charge in/of life
• human development is seen as a continous process
• personality: life long development

Paid Less attn to: ID/instincts, purely intrapsychics causes/conflicts, earliest childhood, psychosexual phases

'' '' More attn to: ego and selfs ego defenss; higher-order motives; social and interpersonal causes; relative issues; later developments through lifespan; adult functioning; social factors and positive strivings; role of culture and society

analyzed various defense mechanisms used by ego (peacekeeping)

(impulses expressed but in a disguise felt acceptance by ego)

1. repression: not conscious/actively doing so (core of psychodynamics)
2. Projection: unacceptable aspects of selt attributed to someone else as the actual source of anxiety
3. Reaction Formation: anxiety-produced impulse replaced  in consciousness by its opposite
4. Sublimation: expression of a socially unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable way (eg. man likes to give people pain so becomes a dentist. sicko)
5. Rationalization:  (self explanatory) little guilt felt

• developed theory of personality analytic psychology: humans are purposive and striving toward self actualization; developed own psycotherapy
• 1st to concetualized self that actively strives for oneness and unity
• disagreed with free association; liked dreams (communicate unconsciously via symbols)
• study of people in relations to their unconscious, both personal and collective
• unconscious includes a collective (an inherited foundation of personality;contains unconscious images and patterns that reflect human species history) and a  personal unconsious (contents once conscious but forgotten, like the Theory of Recollection-Phaedo Plato) and is a healthy force

• contents of collective unconscious, images/symbols experiences the inherited patterns for the organization of experience (e.g mother archtype)
• not been in consciousness; mainfested in dreams and myths
• "primordial images"
• same idea as "Theory of Forms (Plato, Phaedo, The Republic)

• broadened Freud's ideae but not only sexual instint
• meanings of behavior is intelligible only in terms of end product/final effects (symptoms); past and purposes/goal striving
• symbolic meanings

physical (bio) weakness associated with helplessness of infancy

(e.g sibling rivalry, becomes root for psychological state being feelings of inferiority (inevitable))

• mark the well-functioning healthy persons;
• positive, adaptive aspects of personality development; cope with realities of lfie with confidence and constructive striving not excessive fear or unrealistic fantasies
• every person is capable of having spontaneously unless blocked in the course of development

• expanded Freud's concepts 2 take into account the important tole of society in developing and explaining personality
• people are primarily social beings to be understood iin terms of their relations to others
• human nature has force of its own that influence social processes 
• also departed from Freud on ideals being able to be genuine strivings not simply rationalizations of biological motives
• made place for the positive attributes (tenderness and love) as basic aspects of human nature

• character traits being fixated at certain psychosexual stage is not the cause of later character traits
• they develop from experience with others
• culture means were molded by our structure, values and substance of a given society

• theory of personal development (identity); studied relativity of ego to society 
• stages of psychosocial develop and each stage has its own psychosocial crisis that needs to be solved

*Contributions in personality psychology:

1. Called attention to psychosocial not just instinct/biological nature of human development
2. Life-long process
3. Development reflects not just past but ways individuals anticipate and respond to future
4. optimistic view of the human condition

1. Oral-Sensory(1yr): trust vs mistrust (am i loved? good? others good?)-->basic trust and optimism, good future sense of drive, hope, trust if overcome
2. Muscular-Anal (2yr): autonomy vs shame (struggle to gain some mastery, freedom, avoid humiliation)-->will and efficacy gained if overcome
3. Locamotive-genital (3-5): initative vs guilt (how can I be powerful? influence environment)--> goal-directedness and purpose (pursue valued goals with a sense of courage not be excessively inhibited by fears/punishment)
   
   
4. Latency (6-start of pub): industry vs inferiority (adult tools/subjects to be mastered; social rules; am i effective?)--> competence
5.  Puberty and Adolescence:  identity vs role confusion (integrate self-concept of private self with expectations and conceptions of social role; ego identity: ability to integrate  changes in libido with developmental aptitudes and social opporunities)--> reintegration of past with present and future goals; fidelity
6. Early Adulthood: intimacy vs isolation (sharing of feelings, mutuality and connection)-->commitment, sharing, closeness, love
   
7. Young and Middle Adult: generativity vs self-absorption-->productivity and concern with world and future
   
8. Mature Adult: integrity vs despair-->perspective, satisfaction with past life, wisdom

• an approach to psychoanalysis that stresses study of interactions betwen individuals, esp in childhood
• "objects" are other people
• mother is most important (begins, orginates) the relational self (the self perceived not as a single entity but as an object in relation to other objects)
• attatchment is the root of all object-relations

•  the self perceived not as a single entity but as an object in relation to other objects

• caregivers create when they provide when they are responsive to the needs of their children
• dependable, comfort in young child's life from which world can be explored with trust, without fear of abandonment

1. securely attatched: greeted mom positvely upon return and then returned 2 play

2.insecure-avoidant: avoided mom throughout even upon reunion

3. Insecure-ambivalent: reunion behavior was a combo. of contact seeking and anger

• a state in which the family exposes child to too much intimacy, stimulation, and intrusiveness
• results in neurotic problems later and internal conflicts (e.g. Oedipus complex)
• changing family structure=understimulation

• therapeutic prrocess that emphasizes role of early, current, and analyst-patient relationships in the development and resolution of personality problems
• focuses on often unconscious, long-standing conflicts and defenses; history in problems in early relationships; expression in current rekationships;treats by focusing on the interpersonal relationship within the therapy context
• therapist actively and empatheticaally 'engages' the patient to build a close ther. relationship
   

• conflict is at core of the theory
• skeptical of Freud's informal clinical methods, tested his ideas
• goal: to integrate some of fundamental ideas of psychoanalytic theory with the concepts and methods of experimental research on behvaior and learning (the ways in which stimuli become associated with responses)

• $, power, love, charity, competence, mastery, creativity, self-realization, etc. 
•  Dollard and Miller studies the learning processes through which human motives may evolve from primary needs (innate;food, oxygen, water, etc)...then called learned drives

1. Drive (motivation): any strong stimuli (internal/exter.) that impels action;Conditions of deprivation: strength of primary drives depends on; length of time an organism has been deproved of relief from an innate drive; learned drives: a motivation that has been transformed from a primary drive by social learning
2. Cue/stimulus: directs behavior, determining when, where and how the responses (behavior) will occur; can vary in intensity
   
3. Response (action or thought): to a cue; they ranked according to their probability of occuring ("initial hierarchy")
   
4. Reinforcement (reward): specific event that strenghtens the tendency for a response to be repeated; drive reduction: tension decreased is the organism's goal, when happens is reinforcing or rewarding

gradual elimination of a tendency to perform a response; occurs when the response is repeated without reinforcement; inhibits not destroys the old habit

(e.g. aversion therapy for alcoholics that puts a med in the alcohol that produces nausea, when the person leaves treatment and has access to alcohol without the nausea drug, they may start drinking again)

• conflict: pursuing 2 or more mutually exclusive goals (incomptaible alternative choices)
• approach: behavior that is directed towards actively achieving a goal/positive reward and avoidance tendencies: undesirable stimult (inhibitory forces)

• Only based on animal studies bothered some; rat behavior is far removed from human problems
• human social behavior is fundamentally different that rat behavior so needs it own distinct methodology

• neutral stimulus becomes conditioned (learned) stimulus by being paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (one that is not natually powerful)
• stimuli valued according to their association with positive or negative outcomes and labels
• words and other complex symbols can be conditioned stimuli capable of evoking powerful emotional responses through higher order conditioning

can elicit behavior without any prior learning

e.g. food in Pavlov's experiments

• the dish; a previously neutral stimulus to which one begins to respond distinctly after been paired with an unconditioned stimulus
• repeated presentation with neutral stimulus presented closely in time before an US that elicits an UR. when this assoc. becomes strong enough, the NS by itself may begin to elicit a response similar to one produced by the US

• process that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (bell) modifies the response to a distinct neutral stimulus with which it has been associated
• repeated presentation with neutral stimulus presented closely in time before an US that elicits an UR. when this assoc. becomes strong enough, the NS by itself may begin to elicit a response similar to one produced by the US
• words and other complex symbols can be conditioned stimuli capable of evoking powerful emotional responses through higher order conditioning

Little Albert (Watson,Rayner 1920)

• Importance of situation/stimuli
• Rejection of inferred motives (e.g. unobserved states, and motives are not adequate explanations)
• operant conditioning
• completely rejected Miller/Dollards motivational focus in personality theory; wanted objective level of analysis that did not rewuire inferences about underlying mental processes
• defined personality as: the person "is" what the person "does"
• experimental analysis of stimulus conditions that seem to control the particular behavior in a situation 

responding the same way to similar stimuli

e.g Little Albert: reacted same way to bunnies than to rats (which he actually feared)

• specific, not an effort to characterize whole personality/infer motives/dynamics, restricts itself to some clearly defined problems and tries to analyze in objective terms without going beyond observed relations; focus on stimulus conditions
• behavior is treated as a sample and interest focused on how specific sampleed behavior is affected by alterations in conditions

• changing emotional reactions; anxiety: learned disadvantagous emotional reaction

1. Establish the anxiety stimulus hierarchy; anxiety evoking situation ranked from least-most severe
2. Learning an incompatible response (relaxation) to inhibit anxiety (conscious relaxation response)
3. Associating anxiety stimuli and incompatible responses (counterconditioning) 

the use of rewards or contingency (close connection with or affinity in nature) contracting to guide a person's behavior

a promising behavioral approach to treating substance abuse

• a rejection of behaviorism and focus instead on mental (cognitive) processes, leading to the development of cognitive psychology (1950s)
• focused on how people represent knowledge about the world, how such representations develop and are accessed in the processing of information

• "monkey see, monkey do."
• no direct external reinforcement
• takes into account how the individual characteristically deals mentally and emotionally with experiences

• third type of learning process (after classical conditioning and operant conditioning); independent of others
• people learn cognitvely by observing others

• to be at least partly responsible and in charge of oneself and behavior 
• self-regulation/reflection, future-orientated behavior generated not merely reflexive

• the most central construct in social-cognitive approach
• its the belief that you can succcessfully execute the behaviors required by a particular situation
• suggests clear links between self-perceptions of ones competence and the ability to actually behave competently
• high efficacy expectations thus help individuals to persist in the pursuit of goals, even in the face of adversities that would derail/depress persons who are less sure of their relevant personal competencies

• used a variety of social cog. person variables to understand the individual differences and the nature of consistency and stability in social behavior
• focused on analysing behavior in its situational context 
• revealed that people have stable if (psychological situations)...then(behavior expressed) situation-behavior patterns

• routine activities and places that exist within a given environment
• impact depends on meaning for a person
• people differ in meaning a situation has

• cirumstances and events within a nominal situation that affect behavior
•  the situation as encoded and constructed by the individual

• try to help clients identify their disadvantage ways of thinking about themselves, other people and their problems
• to increase client's perceived and real freedom to change in desired directions
• Covert modeling: done in imagination
• Cognitive restructuring (Beck)

• the study of individual's experience as they perceive and catergorize it, with emphasis on the self and interactions with other people and the environment
• emerged against psychoanalytic work of Freud (bc didnt pay enough attn. to potential strengths of personality) and behaviorism("rat psych.")
• constructivist: humans create system for meaningfully understanding world/experiences (subjectively)

Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

• holisticm individuals studied as a whole person (subjective experience and the self)

• viewpoint (Kierkegaard) that humans are completely free and responsible for their own behavior and this responsibility is at the root of the deep dread and anxiety that characterizes humans
• potential for self-change
• tends to reject most of the dynamic and motivational concepts of psychoanalysis and most assumptions of trait and behavioral levels of analysis
• positive strivings: for growth and self-actualization

We're inevitably the builders of our own lives:

1. were all choosing agents (cant avoid choices)
2. free agents (freely sets life goals)
3. Responsible (accountable personally for life choices)

• idea that adult motivs replace the motives of infancy
• behavior originally motivated by instincts but motives are contemporary
• extent to which an individual's motives are autonomous=measure of maturity
•  Proprium of self develops as characterized by: bodily sense, self-esteem, self-identity, rational thought, self-image

• understanding in terms of role in present regardless of their origins in past
• past is not important unless shown to be active in the present
• focused on currently perceived experiences, phenom. self and unique pattern of adaptation, integrated/biosocial person

• position that construes behavior as determined by the person's psychological life space (events in their total psychological situation at the moment) rather than by past events or by enduring situation-free dispositions
• rejected the idas of constant personality traits; dynamic force are always changing in psych. reality
• habits are not frozen associations but are results of life space forces
• need is a tension system

• events in their total psychological situation at the moment
• totality of facts that are determinates of behavior at a certain moment
• includes the person (p) and their psychological environment (E)
• past/future dont exist in the present moment so cant effect it; only current/momentary events can
• B=f(p,E)

• the psychological life space that takes into account only what is happening and experienced at any given moment in time 
• with maturity is a differentiation of person and psych. environment

• emphasis on perceptions and interpretations as determinents of actions (reactions)
• positive view of human nature
• assumed a universal need for positive regard because aware of self and desire acceptance and love from important people in life and from yourself
• people born with a need 4 human connection also born with an organismic valuing process:tendency to engage in process; capacity to know what youre feeling while youre feeling it..direct self-awareness

• desired state of being, where the individual functions as an integrated unit
• not specific motivational constructs, tendency toward fullfillment, actualization so "motivation" becomes not a special construct but an overall characterization of simply being alive
• emotions are beneficial to adjustment, facilitates goal-orientated behavior
• in course of actualization itself, organism engages in a valuing process: perceived enhanging=positive valued and approached with negativity avoided

• organized, consistentwhole, perceptions about oneself and one relative to others and to diverse aspects of life (all have value attatched to them)
• interpretation of self influences perception and behavior (how perceives rest of world)
• values are a direct result of experience with environment or gotten from others

1. Self/Self-Concepts
2. Actual experience of the organism itself 

1. rely on verbal, interview format
2. focus on client-clinician relationship
3. primarily concerned with feelings
4. emphasize importance of unconscious processes (defenses, repression)
5. Consider increasing awareness and acceptance of unconscious feelings to be major goal of psychotherapy

1. Focus-specific content thats repr. (id impulses bs organismic experience)
2. motives-sex vs self realization
3. Insights hoped to achieve

• illuminates persons own constructs not the psychologists hypothesis
• personal constructs: the ways we represent or view our own experiences; theoretical approach to personality that tries to see how the person sees/aligns events on their own dimensions
• different people may construe same event differently and every event can be construed in alternative ways (constructionist/interpretivist)

• subjective, used to make sense of world)

1. Bipolar: each contains a pair of characteristics that are psychological opposites for the person (not necessarily logically opposed); A: Emergent pole: side applied in a characterization, B: Implicit pole
2. Permeability: a highly p. (vs impermi-narrow range/definition) construct is one into which a wide range of info can fit (e.g. "good vs immoral")

an attempt to see another person through his/her constructs

*individual is what he does and comes to know his nature by seeing what hes doing*

• the world as perceived: the self as experienced, situations are perceived by individual
• Potential for Growth, change and freedom: "man is what he makes of himself"

1. Actual: representation of yourself as you are
2. Ideal: rep. of who you would hope, wish or like to be
3. Ought: of who one shouf be or feels obligated to be (normative)

Actual/ideal discrepencies-->dejection (Higgins)

Actual/ought ""--> agitation (Higgins)

• method of obtaining trait ratings; consists of many cards, on each of which is a trait description
• rater groups the cards in a series of piles ranging from least characteristic-most characteristic of the person

measure that tests individual on their perceptions of the meanings of diverse words, phrases and concepts by having them rate each item on a bipolar scale

1. personal significane
2. objective and flexible
3. primary evaluative (good-bad) factor: most important, enter most extensi. into how people charact. themselves, experiences and other people
4. potency
5. activity

a movement initiated by Seligmanz understand human strengths through research and to enhance them through therapeutic and eucation interventions; pleasure, engagment, menaing

Level 1: Subjective experience

Level 2: The individual

Level 3: The Groups

• To give people unconditional positive regard to try to ease the incongruency between the organismic experience and the self-concept
• if they can experience this sense of safety atleast in small ways, eventually can learn to use the capabilities realized
• can train people to provide this kind of responsiveness to other people (e.g. AA, suicide hotline)

• fully exited drive-structure model but influenced by Freud, interpersonal focused.

Basic Motives: 

1. Need for satisfaction: a.)consists fundamentally of being able to develop and utilize your own inherent capabilities (talents), b.) to develop capabilities to express thoughts, emotions, perceptions, options out loud, c.) substory: tenderness, therorem/integrative tendencies:to do a and b in a manner that people around you more or less listen, enjoy listening, wont abandon 
2. Sense of security/safety: each person born with a fundamental capacity for empathy, as a result early on (infant) you will immediately and directly feel emotions of parenting figure, because of thisfeeling become diassociated with you (actions and feelings) (conditioning)-->beginning of formation of the self (transmitted via empathy and how moms interacting with you)...dynamisms: connection with other (mom) and self(me)
3. 
   

• operates through the security operation:narrow attention to thinks in world that are consistent with beliefs you hold about yourself; if not consider it a threat and you dont even see it
• principle conscious seto of notions of who you actually are in relation with parent figure; as its arising, moms experiences can be painful so you shove them into the "not me"(unconscious) -->not in the self-system(qualities, actions, perceptions accompanied by traumatic experiences beome things youd never do/be (self develops to ward off)
• Similar to Freud's reaction formation: feeling  becomes opposite feeling
• The more not me in the system m the stronger the self-system

• Axis II personality disorders
• pervasive and chronic: integrated within their entire personality, probably will last over entire life
• hard to treat

more serious because like a ticking time bomb, seed planted and will express itself completelky in the future, latent until triggered

• more traditionally considered traits
• generic traits: we all have in common and those traits that are unique
• richer view of personality components
• trait ideas (e.g. extraversion)
• traits are adjectives (descriptive terms)
• dimensions of self: provate self, social presentation, self as defined by physiolocy

• out of psychological framework (not traditionally considered traits)
• omtersted in the matter of motivation and studied exactly what Freud was against
• stable trait-dimensions ("needs")
• assess how much "need" have by using projective tests (TAT)
• TAT to show underlying needs and motivation independent judges look rate/categorize the narratives

Raymond Cattel (researcher)

• put trait theory on empirical map
• aim: to conduct technologically sophisticated studies
• identify main traits people possess, and more peripheral (less central to who they are as a person)

• a mathematical procedure for sorting trait terms or test responses into clusters or factors; used in the development of tests designed to discover basic personality traits; it identifies items that are homogenous or internally consistent and independent of others
• aggregate questionairres, try to intercorrelate all them together simultaneously, come up with a set of factors (label them) and if all land on set of factors make a claim; labels: traits and they exists inside you and cause your behavior 

• each person have fundamental predispositional tendencies (character traits) they predict behavior over a wide variety of situations and traits should be consistent over time

• interested in "Do traits predict behavior across wide array of situations?" 
• 
  

• if take people who score high for a trait, identify 2 situations they know can assess the trait unequivocally and find the correlation between trait and behavior
• .30 is a very low correlation, which is what they found (.00-.99/1)
• unstable dispositions equal relatively low predictibility 
• so can conclude that the situation has a major impact on the expression of traits

• goal: to be able to successfully preselect soliders that will stay loyal when captured
• so they put soldiers in variety of stressful situations
• Findings: (1) if want to be 100% in predicting behavior the only choice you have is to place subject precisely in the kind of situation they will face to observe their behavior (situational test), (2) Analog procedure: set up a fake situatiom, known to be fake and create some sort of semblance of the situation (imperfect, external validity), (3) build situation in a test (e.g pencil and paper tests of social anxiety)
• learned that although its compelling/intuitvly plausibe to talk about traits, the task/effort failed to find an efficient, cost-effective tool

• Distinctive if...then situation-behavior profiles that characterize individuals
• have to know the situations to understand how you behave and possibly why

• general overview of trait psychology 
• cognitive heuristic: strategy to categorize and solve a problem; a lot of distortions possible, biases that channel what er expect and change behavior accordingly
• representativeness heuristic: tendency to predict incorrectly extreme values; think low prob. events occur more often than they do in reality;ignoring base rates of occurence
• cognitive economics: similar to cognitive heuristics, recognizing that people are flooded with into that must somehoe reduce/eimplify to allow efficient processing or avoiding being overwhelmed
• trait psychology: not addressing underlying processes, way we perceive will guide actions not what objectively happened (just classifies people)
• we can reconstrue what event means and what means for the person

• consentual prototype: means same to group of people (agreed upon)
• situation focus: empha. physical ad psycho. features of interaction context
• person focus: highlights diff. types of people and personalities
• cognitive structure: a person's belief system and knowledge; includes social generalizations: individual has drawn from direct personal experience or indirect exposures (e.g. media, culture, social environment)
• social categorization: in typing an object, the perceiver estimates the degree of similarity between object and a prototype for each cate. into which the obj. might plausibly fit

What effects simplifying and refining and categorizing?

1. past experience (way of representing in memory) to make sense of present
2. your perception of things determines your categorization
3. sensitive to context interactions

• construct assessibility: readiness in which stored construct is utilized in information processing; remember it and use it in interactions with environment

Things that affect the acces. of a certain construct

1. expectations: subjective estimates of the liklihood of a given event
2. motivation: more research context, search requ. being imposed by needs, tasks, goal, etc
3. recency of activation: priming; makes it more likely to be remembered; exposure to personality trait terms in priming tasks
4. frequency of activation: morre freq. activ. more likely to be used/assessible
5. Salience:  both prominence of distinctiveness or both (very similar to one another ); prominence: appraising quality of someones attributes (striking, vivid), distinctiveness: uniqueness or someones attributes
6. relation to acess. constructs: when stores item activated others are auto. activ. with it (spreading activation theory) because related to it; varies with people
7. contextual variability: differences in physi. and social cirum. that will cause differences in acc. of partic. constructs for anyone in the situation

1. Openess to experience
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extroversion
4. Agreeablness
5. Neuroticism