1. hemorrhage

2. low production of RBCs in bone marrow

3. insufficient Hb due to iron deficiency  

4. increased RBC destruction.

A genetic disease caused by a substitution of glu for val in the AA sequence of Hb.

-causes deoxygenated Hb to stick together, creating a sickle-cell shape for RBCs

-RBCs are inflexible and can get stuck in capillaries, blocking blood flow

A genetic disease that causes sphere-shaped RBCs due to a defect in spectrin.  Abnormal RBCs are destroyed by macrophages in the spleen - over-destruction causes anemia

tx - splenectomy to relieve symptoms (removal of one of the sites of RBC destruction)

newly-made RBCs that still contain a small amount of rRNA

-an increased amount of reticulocytes in the blood implies the need for a greater oxygen-carrying capacity (ex. after hemorrhage or moving to higher altitudes)

RBCs with DNA fragments remaining in the cytoplasm after extrusion of the nucleus

-found in some disease states

A type of WBC containing granules

-neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils

-nuclei contain 2 or more lobes

-live only a few days in CT

-do not make very much protein so they have under-developed rER and Golgi complexes

-depend mostly on glycolysis so they can live in oxygen-scarce areas like areas of inflamed tissue

A type of WBC that contains not specific granules, but does contain azurophilic granules (lysosomes)

-includes lymphocytes and monocytes (become macrophages when they migrate from the bloodstream to CT)

-most common WBC in peripheral blood

-nucleus is multi-lobed (2-5 lobes)

-maybe contain a Barr body sticking off the nucleus (an inactive X chromosome)

-salmon-pink specific granules

-red-purple azurophilic granules

-post-capillary venules become more permeable to plasma and allow neutrophils to leak into CT at the site of injury

-the injury site becomes swollen, red, and may exhibit loss of function

-pseudopoida of neutrophils can engulf foreign material into vacuoles (phagosome)

-specific granules fuse with the phagosome releasing superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide, lysozyme, lactoferrin (absorbs iron so bacteria can't use it)

-proton pumps lower the pH of the phagosome so lysosomes can work (azurophilic granules)

-azurophilic granules dump hydrolytic enzymes into the phagosome to kill bacteria

the remnants of dead neutrophils, dead bacteria, digested tissue, and fluid

-looks viscous and yellow

-bi-lobed nucleus

-contains large, eosinophilic specific granules

-involved in allergic rxns

-found in the lamina propria of the small intestine, respiratory tract, and uterovaginal tract

-can be suppressed with corticosteroids from the adrenal ctx

Specific granules in eosinophils are oval-shaped and contain a protein with crystalline core located in the longitudinal axis of the granule (called the internum)

-the protein is basic, with many arginine residues (hence eosinophilic staining)

-impt for the destruction of parasitic worms

-externum - the less dense area surrounding the internum

1. involved in allergic rxns

2. toxic to parasitic worms

3. synthesize substances to counter histamine and leukotrienes to modulate inflammatory response

-least abundant WBC

-nucleus divided into irregular lobes

-contain large, irregular, basophilic specific granules

-specific granules contain histamine and heparin

-both contain histamine and heparin

-both participate in inflammatory response to antigens

-mast cells found in CT, while basophils are found in blood

-different precursors in bone marrow

-types - B and T lymphocytes

-cells of the immune system that defend against foreign macromolecules, microorganisms, and cancer

-cells with large nucleus and a thin pale blue rim of cytoplasm surrounding it

-lymphocytes are the only leukocyte that can return back to blood from CT

-produced in bone marrow

-agranulocytes

-largest peripheral blood cells

-leave circulation and migrate into CT to become macrophages

-nuclues - kidney bean/horseshoe-shaped

-chromatin is less dense than lymphocytes

-basophilic cytoplasm

-formed from bone marrow stem cells

-anucleate cell fragments (very small - look like pieces of gunk of a peripheral blood smear)

-originate from megakaryocytes

-contain different types of granules involved in blood clotting

granulomere - the central region of the platelet containing many granules

1. delta granules - contain Ca2+, 5-HT, ADP, ATP (sticky stuff) - promotes platelet aggregation and adhesion

2. alpha granules - contain fibrinnogen and platelet-derived GF - involved in blood vessel repair, platelet aggregation, and coagulation of blood

3. lambda granules - contain lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes for clot resorption

1. primary aggregation - in response to exposed collagen from broken eendothelium of blood vessels, platelets aggregate forming a platelet plug

2. secondary aggregation - the plate plug size increases

3. Blood coagulation - blood plasma proteins go through the blood clotting cascade that forms fibrin

clot (thrombus) = reticular fibers, RBCs, WBCs, platelets

4. clot retraction - actin and myosin in platelets contracts, shrinking the size of the clot

5. Clot removal - once the damaged blood vessel is repaired, endothelium-derived plasminogen activator stimulates plasminogen to form plasmin (proteolytic enzyme to break up the clot)

-lambda granules from plates are released to aid in clot removal