• they are immune responses
• they lead to inflammation and consecutive tissue damage

• mast cells
• circulating basophil granulocytes

• activation of complement
• activation and accumulation of neutrophil granulocytes

fibrinoid necrosis in vessel walls (e.g. necrotising vasculitis)

what is the mechanism of killing the target cells in

CD8+ T-cell cytotoxic reactions?

• osmotic lysis based on membrane penetration
• induction of apoptosis by Fas-ligand binding

• lipoma
• fibroma
• leiomyoma

• it is a tumor composed of gelatinous connective tissue
• its structure resembles the fetal wharton's jelly

• cavernous hemangioma
• capillary hemangioma

• specific binding of antigen by test antibodies
• antibodies are labelled by an enzymatic reaction (peroxydase) or with a fluorescent dye

• the wound is caused by a sharp, clean devices
• there is little tissue damage
• there is little bleeding and inflammation
• there is a good apposition of edges

• the wound edges are held together by fibrin, then by fibroblasts
• a small amount of granulation tissue is produced
• a small amount of collagen is synthesized
• the remaining scar is delicate

• Large tissue desctruction
• Lots of tissue debris
• Infection and inflammatory reaction develops

• the wound cavity is gradually filled with granulation tissue
• massive collagen production
• terminates with a large scar

• burning
• dog bite

adult stems cells: bone marrow and peripheral blood

embryonic stems cells:  from and early embryo

amyloid AA (e.g. amyloid associated) :  occurs in patients with chronic diseases associated with pronounced tissue descturction

amyloid AL (e.g. amyloid light chain) :  occurs in patients with abnormal proliferation of cells of B-lymphocytic origin

• congo red staining
• bi-refringence in a polarized light

• a pre-neoplastic condition 
• occurs mainly in epithelia
• early recognition and surgical removal can prevent tumor formation

• nuclear and cellular polymorphism
• hyperchromatic cell nuclei
• number of mitotic figures increased
• disturbed cell polarity

• dysplasia of the whole thickness of epithelium
• the basement membrane is still intact, and there is no signs of invasive growth
• it's called in situ carcinoma

T= the local extention of the tumor

N= lymph node involvement

M= presence of organ metastasis

• phsiological steady state
• ability for adaptation

• reduced activity
• reduced blood supply
• unsatisfactory alimentation
• lapse of nerve stimulation
• lack of hormonal stimulation

• ubiquitin-proteasome system
• cellular autophagy

• reduction of the volume of functional cells by atrophy (simple atrophy)
• reduction of the number of functional cells by apoptosis (numerical atrophy)

• cell or tissue death in a living organism
• the sum of morphological changes occuring within dead cells in a living environment

• infarction
• zenker type necrosis (typhus, tetanus)
• caseous necrosis (necrosis caseosa)
• slough necrosis (necrosis crustosa)
• fibrinoid necrosis (in arterial walls)

• occurs in tissues rich in fluid and lipoid substances and poor in proteins
• prominent swelling and liquefaction

• escape of pancreatic lipase
• neutral fat is digested into fatty acid and glycerol
• formation of calcium soap from fatty acids

• histopathological grading
• pathological staging

• clinical progression (size, dissemination)
• biological progressiong (dedifferentiation/ anaplasia)

• chromosomally integrated homogenous staining region (HSR)
• extra chromosomal double minutes

• N-MYC gene amplification in neuroblastomas
• HER-2/ NEU amplification in breast cancer

• Nottingham prognostic index (NPI) in breast cancer

• Gleason-score in prostate cancer

the intensity of melanin synthesis in melanocytes

the number of melanocytes in the skin does not differ

• junctional naevus
• compound naevus
• intradermal naevus

• depth of penetration
• ectodermal ulceration
• mitotic rate
• epitheloid cell type

macroscopically- tissue swelling, increased weight

microscopically- widening of EC space

• increased hydrostatic pressure
• increased vascular permeability
• decreased plasma oncotic pressure
• lymphatic stasis

• heart failure
• venous thrombosis
• hepatic cirrhosis with vascular decompensation
• pregnancy

• chronic renal failure
• hepatic cirrhosis with parenchymal decompensation
• starvation (inanitio)
• low protein malnutrition

excision of a lymph node (block- dissection)

neoplasia of lymph nodes

inflammation and scarring of lymph nodes

• red thrombus - coagulation
• white- precipitation (co-glutination)
• mixed or laminated- red and white components
• hyaline thrombus- fibrin microthrombus usually in DIC
• complex thrombus

• arterial
• venous (phlebothrombosis, deep v's in lower extremities, portal v)
• intracavital thrombus of the heart ( mural thrombus or vegetatio globulosa)

• endothelial lesion
• deceleration of the blood flow (congestion)
• dilated vessels (turbulence)
• increased blood coagulation (hyperviscosity syndrome, thrombocytosis, activation and accumulation of coagulation factors) 

• intravascular solid, liquid or gaseous material that is carried by the blood stream
• causes obstruction of an artery (emablo= to throw in)

• endogenous
• exogenous

• fat (trauma, medical malpractice)
• amniotic fluid
• cells (trauma, tumor)
• thrombus
• tissue particles
• atheroma (cholesterol crystals in renal capillaries)
• gas- embolisation (caisson or decompression syndrome)

• air embolisation
• foreign body (oily injection, catheter, broken needle-tip)

• discontinuity of vessel wall (Haemorrhagia per rhexim, haemorrhagia per arrosionem)
• step-over bleeding (haemorrhagia per diapedesim, occuring at the level of capillaries)

• injury of vessel wall (cut, puncture, contusion, incision)
• spontaneous rupture of the vessel wall (atherosclerosis, media necrosis, aneurysma, varyx)

• ulcer (gastric or duodenal)
• inflammation (e.g. TBC in lung)
• tumor (malignant tumors)

local (circumscribed)

generalized (sepsis)

hyperacute

acute

subacute

chronic

• nature of inducing factor
• intensity/ virulence of inducing factor
• location of inducing factor
• immune response

• tissue debris
• fibrin
• neutrophil granulocytes
• bacteria

• rubor
• turmor
• calor
• dolor
• functio laesa

• serous
• fibrinous
• haemorrhagic
• purulent/ supperative
• gangrenous

• occurs in tissue interstitium and cavities of the body
• presents as a serum-like fluid
• the mildest form of inflammation

• starts with a serous exudation
• exudate becomes sero-fibrinous
• thick layer of fibrin may precipitate

• usually is the results of bacterial infections
• leukodiapedesis
• pus production

• lined with a thick wall
• inner layer is the pyogenic wall
• outer layer is the hypocellular scar tissue

• endothelial lesion
• erythorodiapedesis
• blood stained exudate
• may follow serous or purulent inflammation

• exudation and proliferation are less important
• dominant feature is the tissue necrosis
• immune response is deficient
• inducing microorganisms are putrifying bacterias

• dry (sicca)
• wet (humida)

• complete healing
• fibrosis and scarring
• abscess formation
• chronic inflammation

• immune mediated
• non-immune mediated
• granulomatous

• production of granulation tissue
• remodeling of granulation tissue
• fibrosis
• scar

• primary
• secondary
• under scale

• allergic
• fungal
• parasitic

• decrease in red blood cell production
• hemolysis
• bleeding

• low iron intake
• iron malabsorption
• increased iron demands
• chronic blood loss
• malignant diseases

• bone marrow stem cell disease
• trilinear bone marrow aplasia
• pancytopenia

which are the chronic myeloproliferative diseases?

• chronic myelogenous leukemia
• chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis
• essential thrombocytemia
• polycythemia vera

• chronic phase
• accelerated phase
• blastic crisis

• proliferative phase: trilinear proliferation
• postpolycythemic phase: myelofibrosis

• isolated bone marrow megakaryocytic proliferation
• chronic elevation of platelet count
• increased tendency for thrombosis

• collagen fibrosis in the bone marrow
• extramedullary haematopoesis
• leukoerythroblastic blood smear

• insufficient blood cell production
• blastic transformation

• indolent
• aggressive

• precursor
• peripheral

• monoclonal plasma cell proliferation
• monoclonal gammopathy
• osteolytic bone lesions
• pathologic fractures

• nodular lymphocyte predominent
• classical

• Hodgkin cells
• mirror image cells
• sternberg-reed cells

• endemic
• sporadic
• immunodeficiency associated

• GI tract
• mediastinum
• respiratory tract
• skin