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| science of human development |
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| The science that seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time. |
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| A way to answer questions that requires empirical requires empirical research and data-based conclusions. |
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| The repetition of a study, using different participants. |
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| A general term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception. |
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| A general term for all the environmental influences that affect development after individual is conceived. |
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| A time when a particular type of development growth (in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to happen. |
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| A time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficultly. For example, early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning. |
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| difference-equals-deficit error |
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| The mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard. |
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| An approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood. |
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| A group defined by the shared age of its members, who, because they were born about the same time, move through life together, experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts. |
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| socioeconomic status (SES) |
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| A person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence. (Sometimes called "social class".) |
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| People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion. |
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| An idea that is based on shared perceptions, not an objective reality. Many age-related terms, such as "childhood", "adolescence", "yuppie", and "senior citizen" are social constructions. |
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| Referring to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individual's, or a species', genetic inheritence. |
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| Cells in an observer's brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer had actually performed that action. |
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| A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A ______ ___ provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development. |
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| A theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior. |
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| A theory of human development that studies observable behavior. ______ is also called "learning theory", because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned. |
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| According to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. The word ______ is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete _____ his or her body to perform well by training fro a long time. |
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| A learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) gradually comes to be connected with a neutral stimulus (such as a particular sound) that has no special meaning before the learning process began. (Also called "respondent conditioning".) |
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| The learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes that action less likely to be repeated). (Also called "instrumental conditioning".) |
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| A technique for conditioning behavior in which that behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person. |
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| An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. The theory's basic principle is that even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people. |
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| A theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. |
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| ecological-systems approach |
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| The view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contests and interactions that constitute a life. |
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| A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society. |
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| A method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' in a systematic and objective manner- in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data. |
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| A research method in which the researcher tries to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one (called the "independent variable") and then observing and recording the ensuing changes in the other (called the "dependent variable"). |
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| In an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable. (Also called "experimental variable"). |
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| variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. In other words, the ___ ____ "depends" on the independent variable. |
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| A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means. |
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| A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics. |
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| A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed. |
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| cross-sequential research |
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| A hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal approach). (Also called "cohort-sequential research" or "time-sequential research"). |
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| A number that indicates the degree of between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). A ____ indicates only that two variables are related, not that one variable causes the other to occur. |
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| Research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales. |
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| Research that considers qualities instead of quantities. Descriptions of particular conditions and participants' expressed ideas are often part of qualitative studies |
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