Term
| What are synapomorphies? symolesiomorphies? |
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Definition
Synapomorphies: are characteristics present in an ancestral species and shared exclusively in more or less modified form.
Symplesimorphies: refers to an ancestral character shared by two or more taxa. |
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Term
| Differentiate between monophyletic, polyphyletic and paraphyletic groups. |
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Definition
Monophyletic: one that includes a group of organisms descended from a single ancestor
Polyphletic: composed of unrelated organisms descended from more than one ancestor. One that does not include the common ancestor of all members of the taxon.
Paraphyletic: one that includes the most recent common ancestor but not all of its descendants |
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Term
| Discuss the differences between a phenetic vs. cladistic approach to classification. What are OTUs? Clades? |
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Definition
Phenetic: focuses on classifying organisms based on overall similarity.
Cladistic: focuses on classifying organisms based on their evolutionary history or relationships
OTUs: Operational taxonomic unit are used to classify groups of closely related organisms
Clades: are particle groups of organisms that have a common ancestry |
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Term
| What is meant by exaptation, homeotic mutations, HOX genes, and heterochrony, paedomorphosis, peramorphosis? |
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Definition
Exaptation: an adaptation that performs a function different from what it originally had (flight)
Homeotic mutations: development of organ in wrong place
HOX Genes: segments form as repeated modules produced by regulatory genes
Heterochrony: evolutionary changes in the development timing
Paedomorphosis: descendant growth as ancestor
Peramorphosis: descendant species has more steps in growth than ancestor |
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Term
Compare and contrast and give examples of each of the following heterochronic phenomena
a.) progenesis vs neoteny
b.) hypermorphosis vs acceleration |
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Definition
a.) progenesis = early onset of reproductive maturity and early death. Neoteny = slowed rate of body features with adults retaining aspects of the younger
Hypermosphosis = delayed onset of reproductive maturity and extended life.
Acceleration = speeding up of body features with a normal onset of reproductive maturity. |
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Term
A.) define bradytely, tachytely and horotely
B.) list an example of a group that displays each pattern (Rates of Evolution) |
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Definition
Bradytely - slower than average rates (ex. Coelacanth)
Tachytely - faster than average rates
Horotely - average rates of change |
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Term
7) For each of the following Lagerstatten, give: a) age, b) taphonomic features, c) unique paleontological insights or unusual fossils, d) geographic location
a) Burgess d) Solnhofen g) Mazon Creek
b) Chengjiang e) Messel h) Holzmaden
c) Hunsrück f) Ediacara i) Green River |
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Definition
Ediacara
Late proterozoic
Soft body impressions in sandstones
Burgess
Middle Cambrian
Bizarre arthropods preserved as carbonized films on shale
Cheng-Jiang
Slightly older than Burgess
Earliest fish and hemichordates
Hunsrück Shale
Lower Devonian of Germany
Pyritized trilobites and echinoderms with soft parts preserved
Mazon Creek
Pennsylvanian of Illinois
Nodules soft body preservation as kaolinite films
Holzmaden
Lower Jurassic of Germany
Rapid burial in deep water muds
Vertebrates and invertebrates
Solnhofen
Upper Jurassic of Germany
Preserved in shallow, hypersaline, anoxic lagoons
Green River
Eocene of Wyoming
Freshwater lake
Fish and insects
Messel
Eocene of Germany
Volcanic lake
Aquatic and terrestrial animals |
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Term
| What are the Lophotrochozoa and Ecdysozoa? To what larger category do these taxa belong? Which organisms fall into each category? |
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Definition
Lophotrochozoa=Organisms that possess a larvae and feeding structure called lophophore (molluscs and brachiopods)
Ecdysozoa= Shed exoskeleton several times through life span (Water bears, insects)
Both part of the larger category of bilateria |
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Term
| For each of the following people, list their contributions to paleontology: |
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Definition
Herrodotus=Saw sea-shells in inland Egypt
Aristotle=Saw fossils and thought they were animals trapped in crevices
Theophrastus=Wrote treatise on fossils
Pliny the Elder=Thout fossil shark teeth fell from the sky during lunar eclipse
Da Vinci=Illustrated fossils
Steno=Considered why fossils were inside rocks
Cuvier=Recognized extinct species
James hall = noted authority on stratigraphy and how it had an influential role in the development of paleontology
Efremov = fossilization patterns |
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Term
| What are the 3 main domains of life? What two comprise the Prokaryotes? |
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Definition
Bacteria (Prokaryote)
Archaea (Prokaryote)
Eucarya |
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Term
| What is the basis for the two main subdivisions of the Eumetazoa? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the two main groups of the Bilateria? What are the criteria for splitting these two groups (explain each in detail using drawings)? |
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Definition
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Term
| List the primary subdivisions of the classical Linnean classification system. |
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Definition
| Species->Genus->Family->Order->Class->Subphylum->Phylum->Kingdom |
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Term
| Compare and contrast the typological and biological species concept |
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Definition
Typological="The Ideal" in nature representing perfection with some variation
Biological=An array of populations in actual interbreeding and isolated (realistic) |
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Term
| Define: Holotype, Paratype, Syntype, Lectotype, Neotype, Topotype |
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Definition
Holotype=Single type specimen
Syntype=Multi type specimens (couple specimens that describe a species)
Paratype=Species other than holotype used to describe species (Tail of one and head of another)
Lectotype=Syntype that is later singled-out as definitive type specimen of species
Topotype= Specimen collected from same area as holotype
Neotype=New specimen designated after "loss" of holotype |
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Term
| Compare and contrast: a) anagenesis/cladogenesis, b) phyletic gradualism/punctuated equilibrium, c) sympatric/allopatric specieation |
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Definition
Anagenesis and Cladogenesis
Anagenesis= evolutionary change within lineage
Cladogenesis= Evolutionary change through splitting lineage (more dominant)
Phyletic gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium
Phyletic gradualism= Change occurs after species splits with anagenesis
Punctuated Equilibrium=Change occurs with short bursts of cladogenesis
Sympatric and Allopatric Speciation
Sympatric=Reproductive isolation within large pop
Allopatric=Reproductive isolation of smaller pop |
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Term
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Definition
| Circular Interbreeding adjacent subpopulations with reproductive isolation of end members |
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Term
| Define and provide and example of: a) atavism, b) homeotic mutation, c) convergent evolution |
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Definition
Atavism=Revival of "lost" traits (Ex. Chicken teeth)
Homeotic Mutation= Development of organ in the wrong place (Ex. Leg on head of fruit fly instead of antenna)
Convergent Evolution= Similar adaptations in similar environments among different lineages |
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Term
| Compare and contrast macroevolution and microevolution |
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Definition
| Both macroevolution and microevolution deal with species and ancestral evolutionary processes. However, macroevolution is evolution at and above the species level while microevolution is below the species level (on a genetic level) |
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Term
| Define: a) bauplan, b) mass extinction, c) pleiotropic effects, d) exaptation |
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Definition
Bauplan=General structured body plan of organisms in a specific taxa or phylum
Mass Extinction=A rapid decline in living organisms in a short period of time
Pleiotropic Effects= Adaptation of one system changes some other feature due to gene linkage
Exaptation= An adaptation that evolved for one function finds a new use |
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Term
| Explain how spandrels are an architectural exaptation. Provide two examples of biological exaptations. |
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Definition
| Spandrels are the inter-area between arches and artists saw these empty areas and wanted to create designs within the arches. This idea of it once being just an inner portion of an arch and architectural design has now changed to a new function of creativity and art, showing an example of exaptation. |
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Term
| Define: a) biostratinomy, b) fossil diagenesis, c) actuopaleontology, d) “float and bloat”, e) bioerosion, f) corrosion, g) abrasion, h) encrustation, i) compaction |
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Definition
Biostratinomy= Study of the processes that affect animals from death to final burial
Fossil Diagenesis=Study of the processes that affect fossils during mineralization
Corrosion=Chemical breakdown of sediment and minerals
"Float and boat"=Dead, fills with gas, rises, pops, sinks
Abrasion=A type of erosion were the transported sediment wears away at a surface
Actuopaleontology=Paleontology of the recent
Bioerosion=Breakup of skeletal material by biological processes
Encrustation=A layer of material, species, or object tightly held to another organism
Compaction=deformation, cracking and crushing of sediment due to weight of overlying sediment |
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Term
| Explain the effects of each on potential of fossil preservation: a) nature of organism, b) nature of habitat, c) mode of life, d) rate of burial |
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Definition
Nature of Organism= Composition, mineralogy and skeletal/shell structure (Soft and hard or single/multi)
Nature of Habitat=Type of sediment, marine or non-marine
Mode of Life=Burrower vs. Epifaunal
Rate of Burial=Articulated or Disarticulated |
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Term
| List the primary types of skeletal materials in order of likelihood of dissolution from greatest to least |
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Definition
| Phosphate->Calcite->Aragonite->Organics |
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Term
| Define: a) unaltered remains, b) recrystalliztion, c) permineraliztion, d) replacement |
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Definition
Unaltered remains=No change was put onto fossil/preservation of soft parts (rare)
Recrystallization=Stabilization of minerals
Perminizaliation=Secondary precipitation of mineral into void space
Replacement=Secondary mineral replacement of original material |
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Term
| Define geopetal structure. How can geopetal structures be used to determine if a fossil has been reworked? |
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Definition
Geopetal Structures= A structure with empty space fills partially with sediment and then crystal spars
-If sediment is not in lowest portion of void, then evidence of reworking |
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Term
| Compare and contrast functional morphology and theoretical morphology. |
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Definition
Functional morphology - relationship between the structure of an organism and the function of its various parts
Theoretical morphology - ultimate goal is to find why certain forms exist, seeks to sketch the range of forms that biological entities could take. |
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Term
| Compare and contrast the analogous, homologous, and biomechanical approaches to functional morphology. |
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Definition
analogous - have different ancestry but the same function
homologous - same ancestry but no longer serve the same function
biomechanical approaches to functional morphology - |
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Term
| 31) What about an animal do trace fossils tell us that body fossils readily do not? |
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Definition
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Term
| Compare and contrast the 4 main types of ichnological structures: a) bioturbation, b) biodeposition, c) biostratification, d) bioerosion |
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Definition
Bioturbation= Disruption of stratified sediment (Burrows)
Biostratification=Biogenic stratified sedimentary structure (Stromatolites)
Biodepisional=Concentration of sediment (Fecal pellets)
Bioerosion=Biogenic structure dug out by an organism (borings) |
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Term
| Define: a) hypichnal, b) exichnial, c) epichnial, d) endichnial (draw a diagram) |
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Definition
Hypichnal=Traces on bottom of bed
Epichnial=Traces on the top of the bed
Endichnial=Traces inside
Exichnial=Traces left so far from the bed it becomes it own thing |
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Term
| Explain the Ethological classification of trace fossils. Define and provide an example of each of the major categories. |
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Definition
Cubichnia= Resting traces(Asteriacites)
Fungichnia=Escape Trace (Nested tunnels)
Domichnia=Dwelling trace (U-tubes)
Argrichnia=Farming Trace (Paleodictyon)
Fodinichnia=Feeding Trace (Rosselia)
Praedichnia=Predation Trace (Trilobite with tail nipped)
Pascichnia=Grazing Trace (Packed Structures)
Repichnia=Crawling Trace (Worm traces) |
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Term
| Define Ichnofacies. What are the 9 major ichnofacies. How is each related to bathymetry and substrate type/consistency? |
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Definition
Icnofacies=Relationships of traces to environment
9 Major ichnofacies
Scoyenia
Trypanites
Teredolites
Glossifungites
Psilonichnus
Skolithos
Cruziana
Zoophycos
Nereites |
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Term
| Define: a) planktonic, b) nektonic, c) endo-benthonic, d) epi-benthonic |
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Definition
Planktonic=Organisms that float in water
Nektonic=Animals that swim freely
Endo-benthonic=Animals live burrowed in sediment
Epi-benthonic=Animals live on sediment |
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Term
| What are the two main groups of: a) Rhodophytes, b)Cholophytes |
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Definition
Rhodophytes
Encrusting and Erect
Chlorophytes
Codiacean and Dasyclad |
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Term
| Explain how each are related: a) achritarchs and polyphyly, b) dinoflagellates and red tides, c) Coccolithophores and the Cretaceous, d) lorica and tintinids, e) radiolarians and siliceous oozes |
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Definition
Achritarchs: artificial group of small (20-150u)
Are polyphyletic, probably represent the cyst stage of various planktonic invertebrates
Composed of condensed fatty acids
dinoflagellates and red tides
Dinoflagellates: microscopic algae (20-150microns) with organic walled cysts
Life cycle alternates between motile and cyst stages
Abundant in the living plankton, important food source and the base of the food chain
Blooms can be toxic = RED TIDES
Coccolithophores and the Cretaceous
Coccolithophores: dominant group of calcareous nanofossils, <50u
Chryssophyte (golden algae)
Unicellular photosynthetic phytoplankton
Cell surrounded by tiny scales (coccoliths)
Form oozes on the sea floor (chalk)
the Cretaceous: huge chalk deposits
lorica and tintinids
Tintinids: ciliated protoctista with fossil record (rare), 60-280u, planktonic, provide food for larger planktonic elements
Chitinous, bell or bottle shaped shell = LORICA
radiolarians and siliceous oozes
Radiolarians: marine, unicellular plankton with delicate skeleton composed of opaline silica, some in photic zone have symbiotic zooxanthellae
siliceous oozes: form thick oozes on sea floor below CCD |
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Term
| Why is it necessary for diatoms to have an auxospore stage during the reproductive cycles? |
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Definition
| Auxospore protects the cell as it develops and elongates, thus restoring cell size |
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Term
| What are the 4 main types of foraminifera tests? |
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Definition
Agglutinate
Calcareous
Hyaline
Procellaneous |
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Term
| Explain the reproductive cycle of the foraminifera |
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Definition
| Mitosis - diploid double and then split into two Diploid, and Meiosis - diploid splits in half and then doubles and splits into haploids |
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Term
| How do Parazoa differ from Eumetazoa? |
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Definition
Parazoa are organisms whose body is formed loosely aggregated cells with poorly differentiated tissues, organs and organ systems.
Eumetazoa are organisms whose body is arranged into tissues, organs, and organ systems. |
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Term
| What are the three main morphologies of sponges? Draw an example of each. |
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Definition
Asconoid
Syconoid
Leuconoid |
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Term
| What are the two main subdivisions of the Porifera? How do they differ? |
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Definition
Gelatinosa=with pinacocytes, mesenchyme, and choanocytes on inner mesechems
Nuda: without pinacocytes, mesenchymal, and choanocytes are on protoplasmic threads. |
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Term
| How do Stromatoporoids differ from Stromatolites? |
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Definition
Stromatoporoids= Body fossils of a once living animal
Stromatolites=Sedimentary structures left behind by microbial mats |
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Term
| What is the ecological importance of Archaeocyathids? When did they live? |
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Definition
| Reef builders and showed up in lower cambrian |
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Term
| Define: a) diploblastic b) mesoglea, c) ectoderm, d) endoderm, e) polymorphism, f) nematocyst |
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Definition
diploblastic - body derived from only two embryonic cell layers
Mesoglea - tissue that functions as a hydrostatic skeleton
Ectoderm - outermost layer of cells or tissue of an embryo
Endoderm - innermost layer of cells or tissue of an embryo
Polymorphism - occurrence of different forms among a population
Nematocyst - specialized cell in the tentacles of jellyfish |
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Term
| What are the two main body types of the Cnidaria? How do they differ? |
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Definition
Polyp form=Attached to a surface
Medusa=Upside down, free floating |
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Term
| Explain the Cnidarian life cycle |
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Definition
| Egg/sperm - Zygote - planula larva - polyp - budding polyp - ephyra - medusa |
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Term
| What are the 3 main classes of the Cnidarians? What are the main subclasses of the Anthazoa? |
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Definition
Cnidarians
Anthozoa
Medusozoa
Anthazoa
Hexacorallia
Octocorallia
Ceriantharia |
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Term
| Define: a) mural pores, b) septae, c) Ceriantheria, d) tabulae, e) fossula, f) calyx, g) septal furrow, h) Gorgonacea |
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Definition
Mural pores -
Septae - thin partitions or membranes that divide two cavities or tissues in an organism
Ceriantheria - order of anthozoa
tabulae - arranged in tabular form
Fossula - small or shallow fossa
Calyx - cuplike cavity or structure
Septal furrow - septum like trench?
Gorgonacea - order of Alyconaria |
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Term
| Compare and contrast the septal insertion patterns of Scleractinian and Rugose corals. |
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Definition
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Term
| What phyla are included in the 'Lophophorates'? Why do we believe this is an artificial grouping of animals? |
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Definition
| Phyla=Bryozoa, Brachiopods, and Phoronida |
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