Term
| Nature Vs. Nurture and its conclusion |
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Definition
• Research has demonstrated that in almost all areas psychological makeup is an interaction of heredity and the environment
• Nature- Influenced by heredity/genetics (inherited, inborn, innate)
• Nurture- Influenced by the environment (learned, socialized, educated |
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Term
| 1st stage of Piaget's Development |
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Definition
Sensorimotor (0-2 years old)
• Characteristics–Acquires understanding of object permanence. 1st understandings of cause and effect relationships.
• Major change–Development proceeds from reflexes to active use of sensory and motor skills to explore the environment.
• Develop symbolic thought and object permanence |
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Term
| 2nd Stage of Piaget's Development |
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Definition
Preoperational (2-7 years old)
• Characteristics–Symbolic thought emerges. Language development occurs (2-4 years). Thought and language both tend to be egocentric. Cannot solve conservation problems.
• Major change–Development proceeds from understanding simple cause and effect relationships to pre-logical thought processes involving the use of imagination and symbols to represent objects, actions, and situations.
• Children have a preliminary understanding of the physical world. |
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Term
| 3rd Stage of Piaget's Development |
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Definition
Concrete Operations (7-11 years)
• Characteristics–Reversibility attained. Can solve conservation problems. Logical thought develops and is applied to concrete problems. Cannot solve complex verbal problems and hypothetical problems.
• Major change–Development proceeds from pre-logical thought to logical solutions to concrete problems. |
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Term
| 4th stage of Piaget's Development |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
• The idea that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible
• Developed by the end of the sensorimotor stage |
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Term
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Definition
| explores the room when mother is present, becomes upset and explores less when mother is not present, shows pleasure when mother returns |
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Term
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Definition
| • Avoidantly attached- A form of insecure attachment in which child avoids mother and acts coldly to her |
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Term
| Anxious Resistant Attached |
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Definition
| a form of insecure attachment where the child remains close to mother and remains distressed despite her attempts to comfort |
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Term
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Definition
| A form of insecure attachment where the child seems not to care whether the mother is present and may be comforted more by strangers or shows little need for emotional bonding |
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Term
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Definition
• Easy: adaptable, positive mood, regular habits
• Slow to warm up: Low activity, somewhat slow to adapt, generally withdraw from new situations
• Difficult: Intense emotions, irritable, cry frequently
• Average: Unable to classify (1/3 of all children) |
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Term
| High vs. Low reactive temperaments |
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Definition
• High Reactive (shy)- React intensely to new environments, people, etc. Tense, fearful, inhibited
• Low Reactive: React in a calm, bold, and uninhibited manner |
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Term
| Teenage brain and pre-frontal cortex changes |
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Definition
• A second wave of gray matter overproduction just prior to puberty, followed by a second round of neuronal pruning during the teenage years
• The last brain area to experience pruning and maturity is the prefrontal cortex
• Plays a critical role in many advanced or “executive” cognitive functions
• This suggests that an adolescent’s occasional impulsive or immature behavior is at least partly a reflection of a brain that still has a long ways to mature
• The parts of the brain that are responsible for exercising judgment are still maturing |
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Term
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Definition
| In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment. Authoritarian parents fail to explain the reasoning behind these rules. These parents have high demands, but are not responsive to their children |
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Term
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Definition
| Like authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting style establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic. Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions. When children fail to meet the expectations, these parents are more nurturing and forgiving rather than punishing |
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Term
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Definition
Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, have very few demands to make of their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control. Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than that of a parent.
- Permissive Indulgent- Responsive, warm, and accepting of their children but impose few rules and rarely punish their children
- Permissive Indifferent- Both unresponsive and uncontrolling, not able to establish firm rules and consistently enforcing them, can amount to child neglect |
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Term
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Definition
--Gender roles are learned through reinforcement, punishment, and modeling.
• From a young age, children are reinforced or rewarded when they display gender–appropriate behavior
• It has been found that parents have only a minimal effect in this theory–rather children are exposed to many other sources of information about gender roles, including television, video games, books, films, and observation of same–sex adult role models. Hence, children learn gender differences through modeling |
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Term
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Definition
| • The behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that are designated as either masculine or feminine in a given culture. |
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Term
| Stages of Language Development |
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Definition
• Babbling (5-9 months)
- Endlessly repeating sounds and syllables
• Sorting through sounds for ones with meaning
• First words
• Two-word statements
• Telegraphic speech – 3 words, lack tenses and articles, but word order is correct
• Learning second language: Sensitive periods |
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Term
| Psychoanalytic perspective on personality |
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Definition
| Emphasizes the importance of unconscious processes and the influence of early childhood experience |
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Term
| Humanistic perspective of personality |
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Definition
| Represents and optimistic look at human nature, emphasizing the importance of the self and fulfillment of potential |
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Term
| Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality |
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Definition
| Emphasizes learning and conscious cognitive processes, including the importance of beliefs about self, goal setting, and self-regulation |
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Term
| Trait Perspective of Personality |
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Definition
| Emphasizes the description and measurement of specific personality differences among individuals |
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Term
| 1st stage of Freud's Psychosexual Stages |
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Definition
Oral Stage (Birth-1)
• Mouth is associated with sexual pleasure
• Weaning of a child can lead to fixation if not handled correctly
• Fixation can lead to oral activities in adulthood/ Oral Aggressive- Oral Receptive |
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Term
| 2nd Stage of Freud's Psychosexual development |
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Definition
Anal Stage (1-3 years)
• Anus is associated with pleasurable sensations
• Toilet training can lead to fixation if not handled correctly
• Fixation can lead to anal retentive or anal expulsive behaviors in adulthood |
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Term
| 3rd Stage of Freud's Psychosexual development |
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Definition
Phallic Stage (3-5 years)
• Focus of pleasure shifts to the genitals
• Fixation can lead to excessive masculinity in males and the need for attention or domination in females
• This stage centers on the genital areas in boys and girls
• One sign of this new stage is that both boys and girls may begin to touch themselves
• This stage culminates in conflicts in both sexes as the child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences |
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Term
| 4th Stage of Freud's Psychosexual development |
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Definition
Latency Stage (5 years – puberty)
• Sexuality is repressed
• Children participate in hobbies, school, and same-sex friendships
• Further internalize their established gender |
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Term
| 5th Stage of Freud's Psychosexual Development |
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Definition
Genital Stage (puberty and older)
• Sexual feelings re-emerge and are oriented toward others
• Healthy adults find pleasure in love and work, fixated adult have their energy tied up in earlier stages |
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Term
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Definition
• At about age 3, boys unconsciously/naturally direct their libido toward their mother. Because of this, they will feel some conflict and rivalry with their father. The little boy does not want to share his mother with anyone, but he fears his father’s power and authority.
• He particularly fears (unconsciously) what he believes to be his father’s power to castrate him.
• He may therefore wants (unconsciously) his father out of way, or dead. It may be that he feels guilt for thinking this way and therefore feels he should be punished. The boy may have castration anxiety |
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Term
| What defense mechanisms do young boys going through the Oedipus complex show? |
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Definition
• To resolve the conflict between desires, guilt, fears, the child will use two ego defense mechanisms, identification and introjection. He will identify with his father. In doing this he will introject (take in) his father’s attitudes, moral values and the male gender
• If the boy can do this successfully, he will be like his father |
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Term
| 2 types of Oral Fixations |
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Definition
• The Oral receptive personality is preoccupied with eating/drinking and reduces tension through oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails. They are generally passive, needy and sensitive to rejection. They will easily 'swallow' other people's ideas.
• The Oral aggressive personality is hostile and verbally abusive to others, using mouth-based aggression. |
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Term
| 2 types of anal fixations |
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Definition
• The Anal retentive personality is stingy, with a compulsive seeking of order and tidiness. The person is generally stubborn and perfectionist.
• The Anal expulsive personality is an opposite of the Anal retentive personality, and has a lack of self control, being generally messy and careless. |
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Term
| The conscious level of the mind |
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Definition
| All things we are aware of at any given moment (information in your immediate awareness) |
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Term
| Preconscious level of the mind |
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Definition
| Everything that can, with a little effort, be brought into consciousness (Long-term memory) |
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Term
| Unconscious level of the mind |
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Definition
Inaccessible warehouse of anxiety- Producing thoughts and drives (thoughts, feelings, urges, and wishes that are difficult to bring to conscious awareness)
• Unconscious- A term used to describe thoughts, feelings, wishes and drives that are operating below the level of conscious awareness |
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Term
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Definition
The Pleasure Principle
• Pleasure Principle- Drive toward immediate gratification, most fundamental human motive
• Id- Latin for the it; the completely unconscious, irrational component of personality that seeks immediate satisfaction of instinctual urges and drives, ruled by the pleasure principle |
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Term
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Definition
The Reality Principle
• Reality Principle- The capacity to accommodate external demands by postponing gratification until the appropriate time or circumstances exist
• Ego- The partly conscious, rational component of personality that regulates thoughts and behaviors and is most in touch with the demands of the external world
• Can repress desires that cannot be met in an acceptable manner |
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Term
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Definition
The Morality Principle
• Internalization of societal and parental values
• Superego- The partly conscious, self-evaluative, moralistic component of personality that is formed through the internalization of parental and societal rules
• Can be harshly punitive, using feelings of guilt
• Ego Ideal- enhances self esteem for moral behavior
• Conscience- Produces guilty feelings for morally inappropriate behavior |
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Term
| How do Neo-Freudians differ from Freud's beliefs? |
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Definition
• The took issue with Freud’s belief that behavior was primarily motivated by sexual urges
• The disagreed with Freud’s contention that personality is fundamentally determined by early childhood experiences
• Departed from Freud’s generally pessimistic view of human nature and society |
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Term
| Striving for Superiority (Adler) |
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Definition
• Believed the most fundamental human motive is striving for superiority- the desire to improve oneself, master challenges, and move toward self-perfection and self-realization
- Arises from universal feelings of inferiority |
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Term
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Definition
• A general sense of inadequacy, weakness, and helplessness
• Often unable to strive for mastery or self-improvement
• Often and denying the reality of one’s limitations overcompensate for their feelings of inferiority and develop a superiority complex – for example, the exaggerating of one’s accomplishment’s and importance in an effort to cover up weaknesses |
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Term
| Collective Unconscious (Jung) |
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Definition
| The hypothesized part of the unconscious mind that is inherited from previous generations and that contains universally shared ancestral experiences and ideas |
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Term
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Definition
The inherited mental images of universal human instincts, themes, and preoccupations that are the main components of the collective unconscious
- Persona- Social Role
- Shadow- Unsocial thoughts, feelings and behaviors
- Anima- Feminine side of the male psyche
- Animus- Masculine side of the female psyche
- Self- Central archetype and true midpoint of personality
➢ Mandala is a symbol of the self |
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Term
| Unconditional Positive Regard |
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Definition
| The sense that you will be valued and loved even if you don’t conform to the standards and expectations of others |
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Term
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Definition
| A person’s sense of self is consistent with her emotions and experiences |
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Term
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Definition
| A person’s self-concept conflicts with their actual experiences |
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Term
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Definition
• A person who pays tries to reach their unique potential is self-actualizing or fully functioning- real self=ideal self
• A person who is fully functioning has several characteristics: openness to experience, existential living, organismic trusting, experiential freedom, and creativity |
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Term
| Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura) |
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Definition
| Albert Bandura’s theory of personality, which emphasizes the importance of observational learning, conscious cognitive processes, social experiences, self-efficacy beliefs and reciprocal determinism |
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Term
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Definition
| A model proposed by Albert Bandura that explains human functioning and personality as caused by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors |
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Term
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Definition
| The mental processes we use to form judgments and draw conclusions about the characteristics and motives of other people |
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Term
| Implicit Personality Theory |
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Definition
• A network of assumptions or beliefs about the relationships among various types of people, traits, and behaviors
• We form cognitive schemas about the traits and behaviors associated with different types of people- mental shortcuts for perceiving people |
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Term
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Definition
| • The mental processes people use to make sense out of their social environment |
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Term
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Definition
| • The effects of situational factors and other people on an individual’s behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| • A cluster of characteristics that are associated with all members of a specific social group, often including qualities that are unrelated to the objective criteria that define the group |
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Term
| Behavioral, Cognitive and Emotional Components of an attitude |
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Definition
• Cognitive Component- Beliefs, thoughts, ideas about the attitude object
• Emotional Component- Feelings and emotions about the attitude object
• Behavioral Component- Predisposition to act in a particular way |
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Term
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Definition
| The mental process of inferring the causes of people’s behavior, including one’s own. Also refers to the explanation made for a particular behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| • The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality |
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Term
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Definition
• The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in.
• The assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation. |
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Term
| Fundamental Attribution Error |
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Definition
| • The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal, personal characteristics, while ignoring or underestimating the effects of external, situational factors; an attributional bias that is common in individualistic cultures |
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Term
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Definition
| • The tendency to judge the behavior of in-group members favorably and out-group members unfavorably |
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Term
| Outgroup Homogeneity Effect |
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Definition
•
• People with the dominant color eyes referred to the other group collectively |
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Term
| Asch study and conformity findings |
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Definition
• Group of people sat at a table, all but one were actors
• He showed 3 cards and would ask which comparison line was the same length as the standard line
• 76 % of people conformed on at least 1 of 18 trials, there was no direct pressure to conform- only implicit
• The subjects followed the majority and chose the wrong answer on 37% of trials
• A control group who answered alone were correct 99% of the time |
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Term
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Definition
| • An unpleasant state of psychological tension or arousal (dissonance) that occurs when two thoughts or perceptions (cognitions) are inconsistent; typically results from the awareness that attitudes and behaviors are in conflict |
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Term
| How did Milgram "encourage" the teachers to obey? |
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Definition
• The subjects arrived with the expectation to obediently follow the experiment’s instructions
• The subjects were familiar that the study was to obtain scientific information for advancement- trusted the experimenter’s authority
• Each additional shock was only 15 volts higher than the previous- therefore it was a gradual, repetitive escalation of the task
• The teacher was reassured that the experimenter was responsible for the outcome |
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Term
| Results of Milgram's study |
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Definition
• 2/3 of subjects went to the full voltage, no subjects stopped at 300-volt level
• There were no differences when the study contained all women
• All of his subjects seemed to think the situation was authentic |
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Term
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Definition
| • A phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress |
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Term
| Zimbardo's Prison Experiment |
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Definition
• Put regular citizens in a prison-like culture- assigned some of them to be guards and some to be prisoners
• They began to act like a real jail, guards were very harsh on the criminals
• They played exactly to their roles on their own |
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Term
| General Adaptation Syndrome |
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Definition
- Invented by Hans Selye
1) Alarm Stage: intense arousal as the body mobilizes internal physical resources to meet the demands of the stress-producing event
a. Catecholamines: hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla that cause rapid physiological arousal
2) Resistance Stage: the body actively tries to resist or adjust to the continuing stressful situation
a. Corticosteroids: hormones released by the adrenal cortex that play a key role in the body’s response to long-term stressors (good in the short run, bad in the long run) – basically steroids that attempt to reduce the stress
3) Exhaustion Stage: the symptoms of the alarm stage reappear, only now irreversibly—body’s energy becomes depleted, adaptation begins to break down, leading to exhaustion, physical disorders, and sometimes death |
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Term
| Seligman's Explanatory Styles |
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Definition
• Distinguishing between those who persist and those who give up
• Optimistic explanatory style: using external, unstable, and specific explanations for negative events; predicts better health outcomes
• Pessimistic explanatory style: using internal, stable, and global explanations for negative events; predicts worse health outcomes |
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Term
| Effects of Stress on Health |
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Definition
• High levels of stress make people more susceptible to infection by a cold virus than people who are not stressed
• Chronic stress triggers the secretion of corticosteroids which influence the immune system’s functioning
• Good in the short-term but bad in the long term
• The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the adrenal medulla to secrete hormones called catecholamines, including adrenaline and noradrenaline. Circulating through the blood, catecholamines trigger the rapid and intense bodily changes associated with the fight-or-flight response. |
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Term
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Definition
| • An interdisciplinary field that studies the interconnections among psychological processes, nervous and endocrine system functions, and the immune system |
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Term
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Definition
• The DSM recommends that clinicians assess an individual’s mental state according to five factors, or axes. Together the five axes provide a broad range of information about the individual’s functioning, not just a diagnosis.
The system contains the following axes:
• Axis I: Clinical Disorders and Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention.
• Axis II: Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation.
• Axis III: General Medical Conditions.
• Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems.
• Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning. |
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Term
| Generalized anxiety disorder |
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Definition
o When one source of worry is removed, another quickly takes its place
•genetic predisposition or a childhood trauma --> hypervigilance --> GAD |
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Term
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Definition
| an anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of experiencing a panic attack in a public situation and being unable to escape or get help |
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Term
| Phobia: Specific and Social |
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Definition
• Phobia: a strong irrational fear of something that does not necessarily interfere with the ability to function in daily life
• Specific phobia: an anxiety disorder characterized by an extreme and irrational fear of a specific object or situation that interferes with the ability to function in daily life
• Social anxiety disorder/social phobia: an anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations – like eating in front of others or using the restroom in public settings – most common anxiety disorder and most prevalent in females |
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Term
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Definition
• Classical Conditioning: teaching a fear where the fear, after instilled in a individual, becomes generalized (ex. bit by a German Shepherd→fear of German Shepherds→fear of dogs)
• Operant Conditioning: involved in the avoidance of behavior that characterizes the phobia (ex. avoiding dogs all together negatively reinforced by the relief from anxiety and fear)
• Observational Learning: some people learn to fear certain things by observing the fearful reactions of someone else who acts as a model in the situation
• Biological preparedness: we acquire some fears because they are historically survival threats or harmful to our health |
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Term
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Definition
• - For biological events that occur during anxiety, the main action occurs in the amygdala and hypothalamus. GABA is the inhibitory neurotransmitter that stabilizes the brain from an excited state. Basically, there is a deficit in GABA, so these areas remain in a heightened, excited state.
• So with the diathesis-stress model, a person's genetic predisposition and environmental factors combine to produce a disorder. So, a person may be genetically predisposed to have a sensitive alarm system or fear network in the limbic system or have low levels of GABA combined with a high-stress or traumatic experience that cues the disorder. |
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Term
| OCD: Obsessions and Compulsions |
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Definition
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: an anxiety disorder in which the symptoms of anxiety are triggered by intrusive, repetitive thoughts and urges to perform certain actions; failure to perform these actions will lead to disastrous outcomes
• Obsessions: repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or mental images that cause extreme anxiety and distress
• Compulsions: repetitive behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| A category of mental disorders in which significant and chronic disruption in mood is the predominant symptom, causing impaired cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning |
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Term
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Definition
Major Depression: symptoms
• loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities, despondent moods, feelings or emptiness, worthlessness, or excessive guilt |
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Term
| Neurotransmitters and Depression |
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Definition
- lack of norepinephrine and serotonin
-link between
learned helplessness and depression-Who will get depressed? |
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Term
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Definition
-Manic-depressive disorder
-Mood levels swing from severe depression to extreme euphoria (mania)
-No regular relationship to time of year (SAD)
-Must have at least one Manic (severe) or Hypomanic (mild) episode
o Supreme self-confidence
o Grandiose ideas and movements
o Flight of ideas |
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Term
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Definition
Bipolar I:
• Has one or more episodes of Major Depression and at least one Manic Episode
Bipolar II:
• Has one or more episodes of Major Depression and at least one Hypomanic Episodes |
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Term
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Definition
| mood disorder characterized by moderate but frequent mood swings that are not severe enough to qualify as bipolar disorder |
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Term
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Definition
- a chronic low grade form of depression
-usually in response to a trauma or stressful event
-similar symptoms to depression but not as severe |
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Term
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Definition
| Sudden, unexpected travel away from home, amnesia, confusion about personal identity or assumption of new identity |
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Term
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Definition
| Inability to remember important personal information, too extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetfulness |
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Term
| Dissociative Identity Disorder |
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Definition
| Presence of two or more distinct identities, each with consistent patterns of personality traits and behavior |
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Term
| Antisocial Personality Disorder |
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Definition
--A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregarding and violating the rights of others; such individuals are also often referred to as psychopaths or sociopath - has the ability to lie, cheat, steal, and otherwise manipulate and harm other people. And, when caught, the person shows little or no remorse for having caused pain, damage, or loss to others
•Deceiving and manipulating others for their own personal gain is another hallmark of individuals with antisocial personality disorder. |
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Term
| Borderline Personality Disorder |
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Definition
--A personality disorder characterized by instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, and marked impulsivity
• Borderline personality disorder is primarily characterized by chronic instability in emotions, self-image, and relationships. Moods are uncontrollable, intense, and fluctuate quickly. The person unpredictably swings from one mood extreme to another
• Partly because her identity is so fragile, she constantly seeks reassurance and definition from others, and then erupts in anger when it is not forthcoming.
• Also characterized by self-destructiveness Self-mutilation, threats of suicide, and suicide attempts are common, especially in response to perceived rejection or abandonment |
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Term
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Definition
• presence of delusions, hallucinations, or both
• Most common type
• Shows well-organized delusions of persecution or grandeur
• Convinced people are plotting against them, act with extreme distrust of others or have a delusional belief that they have “special powers” |
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Term
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Definition
• Weird faces and grimaces, can twist the body
• Sometimes echo what other people around them say
• Can sometimes be completely immobile as well
• Highly disturbed movements or actions; bizarre |
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Term
| Disorganized Schizophrenia |
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Definition
• Extremely disorganized behavior, disorganized speech, and flat affect
• Experience some delusions and hallucinations that contain fragmented, shifting themes
• Such as laughing for no apparent reason |
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Term
| Undifferentiated Schizophrenia |
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Definition
| • Person displays some combination of positive and negative symptoms that does not clearly fit the criteria for paranoid, catatonic, or disorganized |
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Term
| Delusions and Hallucinations |
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Definition
• Delusions- false belief that persists in spite of compelling contradictory evidence
• Bizarre and farfetched notions; person becomes preoccupied with his erroneous beliefs and ignores any evidence that contradicts them
• Hallucinations- false or distorted perceptions that seem vividly real
• Often tied to a person’s delusional beliefs |
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Term
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Definition
• The Dopamine Theory: Drugs that reduce dopamine reduce symptoms
• Drugs that increase dopamine produce symptoms even in people without the disorder
• Theory: Schizophrenia is caused by excess dopamine
• The problem with the theory: Drugs that reduce dopamine do reduce Schiz symptoms, but the effects on dopamine function in the brain and on behavior have different time courses. |
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