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| processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attainging a goal |
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created by Abraham Maslow; hypothesized that within every human there exists a hierarchy of five needs:
1. Physiological; 2. Safety; 3. Social; 4. Esteem; 5. Self-Actualization |
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| physiological and safety needs satisfied externally by things such as pay, union contracts |
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| social, esteem, and self-actualization are satisfied internally |
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| theory that says employees do not like work so managers have to direct or coerce into performing |
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| managers believe that workers see work as a natural and therefore the average person can learn to accept and seek responsibility |
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| (motivation-hygeine theory) individuals relation to work is basic and that ones attitude toward work can determine success of failure |
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| conditions surrounding the job |
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| need for achievement: drive to excel and meet standards |
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| need for power: need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise |
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| need for affiliation: desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships |
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| Cognitive Evaluation Theory |
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| the introduction of extrinsic (pay) rewards for work that was previously intrinsically (pleasure) rewarding tends to decrease overall motivation |
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| specific goals lead to increased performance; set difficult goals with time constraints |
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| converts overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for work units and individuals |
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| refers to an individuals belief that they are capable of performing a task. increase through: enactive mastery, vicarious modeling, verbal persuasion, arousal |
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| employees weigh what they put into a job situation against what they get from it and compare; if inequity exists: change inputs, change outcomes, distort perceptions of self or others, choose a different referent, leave the field |
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| distributive, procedural, interactional, organizational |
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| will exert a higher level of of effort if they believe it will lead to a good performance appraisal, rewards, and that the rewards will satisfy the employee |
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| capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with the A's wishes. its potential does not need to be actualized to be effective and it requires dependency relationship |
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Coercive: one reacts to this power out of fear of the negative results that may occur
Reward: comply with the wishes or directives of another for the positive benefits
Legitimate: represents the formal authority to control and use organizational resource |
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Expert: influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge
Referent: based on the identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits
most effective power source |
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| legitimacy, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, exchange, personal appeals, ingratiation, pressure, coalition |
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| high self-monitors, internal locus of control, high need for power, large investmant in organization, more perceived job alternatives, high expectations of success |
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process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected something that one cares about.
Traditional: conflict is harmful and must be avoided
Human Relations: conflict is natural and inevitable outcome in any group and need not be negative
Interactionist: conflict is encouraged to prevent group from becoming stale |
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| constructive, support the groups goals and improve its performance |
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| hinderance of group progress |
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| potential opposition, congnition and personalization, intentions, behaviors, outcomes |
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| process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them |
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| negotiating strategy, gains and losses need to be equal |
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| one or more settlements that can create a win-win scenario |
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| defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated |
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| the degree to which activities in the organization are subdivided into separate jobs, completed by separate individuals; easier and less costly to train works |
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jobs are grouped together to increase coordination of specialized jobs
Function: grouping individuals by function performed
Product: grouping products by departmentalization, but increased redundancy
Geography: departmentalization by geography allows for closer customer relationships.
Process: each dept specializes in one specific phase of production
Customer: each dept specializes in type of customer |
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| unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the organization to the lowest level and clarifies who reports to who |
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| the rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders |
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| each person has one and only one superior to report to |
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| the number of employees a manager has control over; determines the number of levels and managers an organization has |
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| degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization; highly centralized: top managers make all decisions |
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| degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized; high: explicit job descriptions, lots of rules/procedures; low: employees have a large amount of discretion in jobs |
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Low degree of departmentalization
Wide span of control
Authority centralized in a single person
Little formalization
Accountability is clear
For small organizations |
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Highly routine operating tasks achieved through specialization
Formalized rules and regulations
Tasks that are groupes into functional departments
Centralized authority
Narrow spans of control
Decision making follows the chain of command |
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| combines two forms of departmentalization: functional and product. dual chain of command |
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| coping with change, establish direction, align sources, inspire employees |
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| coping with complexity, brings order and consistency |
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| differentiate leaders from non-leaders by focusing on personal qualities and characteristics |
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| assumes people can be trained to lead |
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Initiating Structure: attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals
Consideration: concern for followers comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction |
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Production-Oriented: emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job
Employee-Oriented: emphasize interpersonal relations |
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| effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leaders style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader |
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| Situational Leadership Model |
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| emphasizes the situational contingency of maturity or readiness of followers |
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| Leader-Member Exchange Theory |
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| leaders differentiate among followers and establish a special relationship with a small group. disparitie are far from randome, leaders tend to choose in-group members based on attitude/personality characeristics similar to theirs |
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| Charismatic Leadership Theory |
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| followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors |
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| Transformational/Transactional Leaders |
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Transformational: inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization
Transactional: motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements |
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| the process of transmitting meaning from one person to another |
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Sender: encodes message
Channel: medium through which messages travels
Receiver: person to whom message is directed and decoded
Noise: communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message
Feedback: the check on how successfully the message has been received/understood |
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| Direction of Communication |
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Downward: flows from one level to a lower level; higher informs lower
Upward: flows to a higher level; higher level is informed about lower level
Lateral: between people at same level; allows coordination between persons and work units |
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| Formal Small-Group Networks |
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Chain: follows chain of command
Wheel: central figure acts as conduit, facilitates emergence of a leader
All-Channel: all actively communicate (self-managing) |
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| Barriers to Communication |
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Filtering: senders pruposefully manipulate info so it will be seen more favorably
Selective: what we hear/see and sense is based on our needs, motivations, experiences, characteristics
Informative Overload: we have a finite capacity for processing data
Emotions: how a person feels influences interpretation of info
Language: jargon causes issues |
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Strategy: way in which competitive advantage will be achieved
Structure: way in which tasks and people are specialized and divided and authority is distributed
Systems: formal processes and procedures used to manage the organization
Staffing: employees and their backgrounds/competencies
Skills: what the company is good at
Style: leadership approach of top management
Shared Values: guiding principles of what is important, informally agreed upon |
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| easier to change and reactions are quicker |
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| longer to change; Hard S can not change if Soft S does not accept |
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Job Enlargement: increase in number and variety of tasks
Job Rotation: periodic shifting of tasks which gives a wider range of skills
Job Enrichment: increase worker control on planning, execution, and evaluation of work |
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Internal Equity: worth of job to organization
External Equity: external competitiveness/compare to other companies
Piece-Rate Pay: paid a fixed sum for each unit completed
Merit-Based Pay: based on individual performance ratings
Bonuses: rewards for recent performance
Profit-Sharing Plans: pay based on group profitability
Gain Sharing: pay based on sharing of gains or savings from increased productivity
Employee Stock Ownership Plans: employees get stock at below-market prices
Skill-Based: flexible benefits, modular, care-plus, flex spend |
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