Term
| What is Experimental Research? |
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Definition
Focus is on testing cause and effect
Manipulate independent variable and measure change in dependent variable
Control for factors that may reduce validity of findings
Potential negative effects of extraneous, confounding, and intervening variables
Avoid the term "prove" when discussing results |
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Term
| What is Internal Validity? |
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Definition
Degree to which change in DV can be attributed to change in IV
Change in IV alone causes change in DV
Potential threats: Selection bias: differences in characteristics of subjects rather than IV, causes change in DV, History: some event (other than IV) occurs during study and influences subjects, Maturation: changes occur in subjects during he study, Testing: subjects' knowledge of experiment or baseline data influences their response, Instrumentation change: accuracy/sensitivity of instrument or measurement methods change from pretest to posttest, Mortality: subjects dropout rate, attrition |
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Term
| What is External Validity? |
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Definition
Degree to which study results can be generalized to other people, conditions and settings.
Potential Threats: Hawthorne effect: subjects behave differently because they know they're being watched, Experimenter effect: one or more characteristic(s) of researcher influences subjects' behavior, Reactive effects of pretest (aka measurement effect)- subjects' reaction to pretest influences results of posttest |
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Term
| What is Symbolic Presentation? |
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Definition
Used to assist researchers and readers in understanding experimental research designs
R= random assignment of subjects to a group
O= observation or measurement of DV
X= experimental treatment or intervention
Time sequences moves from left to right |
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Term
| What is True Experimental Designs? |
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Definition
Highest degree of control over research conditions-->best evidence of causality
Manipulation of experimental variable: experimental intervention (treatment), can be physiological, psychological or both
Subjects split into two groups: experimental and control or comparison group
Random assignment of subjects: procedure for placing subjects into either group with equal probability.
Pretest/Posttest control group design: most common, ensures both groups are equivalent but may introduce pretest bias
Posttest only control group design: used when pretest isn't feasible, eliminates pretest bias but may introduce selection bias |
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Term
| What is Quasi-Experimental Designs? |
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Definition
Differs from true exp- either no random assignment or no comparison group
Clinical setting, most nursing research is of this type
Non-equivalent control group design: similar to pre/post control group but without random assignment
Time series design: intervention preceded by and followed by periodic observations |
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Term
| What is Non-Experimental Designs? |
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Definition
Survey study: self-reported info on attitudes, opinions, behaviors, etc, written, verbal or electronic, large quantity of data in short time at relatively low cost
Correlatinal study: examine how changes in one variable coincide with change in another variable, relationships can be positive, negative, strong, weak, or non-existent, range from -1 to 1
Comparative study: evaluate characteristics of two or more groups as it relates to DV without manipulating IV |
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Term
| Why do we need Qualitative Research? |
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Definition
Gain insight into people's perceptions of events and circumstances
To uncover new, previously unknown phenomena
Not possible to apply quantitative methods to some situations and events |
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Term
| What are the Characteristics of Qualitative Designs? |
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Definition
Used to discover new concepts rather than establish statistical relationships among variables
Data collected through interviews, observation, written responses, and historical records
Identify common themes or patterns
Bracketing: researchers block out own feelings to better understand participants' perceptions and attitudes
Approaches differ based on discipline from which designs originate: distinctions can be difficult to distinguish |
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Term
| What are Qualitative Research Designs? |
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Definition
Phenomenological
Ethnographic
Historical |
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Term
| What are Phenomenological Studies? |
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Definition
Origins in philosophy
Phenomenon= significant event
Describe and capture the 'lived experience' of participants experience from subject's vantage point
Reality is defined by the individual; unique to each person |
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Term
| What are Ethnographic Studies? |
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Definition
Origins in anthropology
Collection and analysis of data about cultural groups
Goal is to understand people: ways they live, believe, behave and adapt
Researchers may 'go native' by living with the people and becoming part of their culture
Most common type of qualitative research in nursing |
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Term
| What are Historical Studies? |
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Definition
Focus on people, events, and situations in the past
Snapshot in time or analysis of changes over period of time
Conducted not only to learn about past, but relate findings to present and future
Data collected from films, newspapers, artifacts, journals, and documents produced at the time |
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Term
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Definition
Complete set of people/objects that possess a common characteristic, aka target population
Accessible population: portion fo population to which researcher has reasonable access
Element: individual unit of population |
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Term
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Definition
Subset of accessible population
In experimental research, representative samples enable conclusions to be generalized to population
Representativeness: degree to which characteristics of sample reflect characteristics of the population |
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Term
| What are Probability Sampling Methods? |
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Definition
Systematic selection process for choosing a representative sample of elements from the population
Only used in experimental research
Simple Random Sampling: each element of population has equal probability of being selected, software apps have replaced manual methods
Stratified random sampling: Population divided into subgroups (strata) based on a relevant characteristic, simple random sample then extracted from each subgroup |
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Term
| What are Non-Probability Sampling Methods? |
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Definition
Greater potential for selection bias; limits generalizability
Convenience sampling: subjects selected because they're in right place at right time, most common method used in nursing studies
Network (snowball) sampling: subjects help researchers identify and recruit other subjects in their 'network' of associates
Purposive (selective) sampling: subjects hand-picked by researcher because they possess (or don't possess) a particular characteristic |
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Term
| What is a Longitudinal Study? |
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Definition
data collected on the same group of subjects over multiple points in time
potential bias from subject dropout, maturation, and history |
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Term
| What is a Cross-Sectional Study? |
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Definition
Data collected over very short time span
Less expensive and easier to conduct but not suitable for many research studies |
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Term
| What is the Sample Size for Qualitative Studies? |
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Definition
Quality more important than quantity
Stop when 'saturation of information' achieved
Sample sizes of only 10 participants aren't unusual |
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Term
| What is the Sample Size for Quantitative Studies? |
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Definition
Desire representativeness
Sample size depends on variety of factors
30-500 usually sufficient
Power analysis: procedure for calculating minimum sample size for experimental studies (min acceptable is 80%) |
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Term
| What is a Sampling Error? |
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Definition
Difference between data obtained in sample and characteristics of entire population
Random variation; natural and expected |
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Term
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Definition
Systematic variation; undesirable
More likely to occur with non-probability sampling
Possible sources: sample selection, acceptance/refusal rate, dropout rate, etc |
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Term
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Definition
| Subjects are selected to participate in a study using a random sampling technique |
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Term
| What is a Random Assignment? |
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Definition
| After being selected, subjects are randomly assigned to be in either the treatment group or control/comparison group |
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Term
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Definition
Paper and pencil or electronic method for collecting self reported info from respondents
Used to measure knowledge, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, ideas, feelings, perceptions, and obtain factual info.
Accuracy/quality depends on respondents willingness and ability to provide valid data
Advantages: quick, inexpensive method to collect large amts of data, less time consuming, geographic reach, anonymity and greater honesty
Disadvantages: postage cost, low response rate, skipped questions, no second chance to clarify question intent, requires certain literacy level, may not be representative of popln |
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Term
| What are Questionnaire Design Considerations? |
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Definition
Appearance: neat, legible, organized, grammatically correct
Language and reading level: appropriate for respondents
Length of individual questions: shorter is better
Wording: follow best practices for developing questions
Placement: group related questions together
Cover letter: clear and concise with instructions |
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Term
| How should Questions be Worded? |
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Definition
Use affirmative rather than negative wording
Avoid ambiguity
Avoid double negatives
Avoid leading questions
Avoid double-barreled questions |
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Term
| What is a Questionnaire Cover Letter? |
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Definition
Identification of researcher and sponsoring agency
Purpose of the research
How participant was selected
Reason why respondent should answer the questionnaire
Length of time required to complete
How data will be used and/or made public
Deadline for the return of the questionnaire
Offer to inform respondent of study results
Researchers contact info
Personal signature of researcher |
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Term
| How can you Improve Questionnaire Response Rate? |
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Definition
Don't send during holiday seasons or popular vacation times
Hand address envelope
Small cash payment
Neatness and clarity
Ease of completion: 10-15 min max, when possible
Pre-addressed, stamped return envelope |
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Term
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Definition
Researcher obtains data through face to face, telephone, or electronic communication encounter with respondent
Structured, unstructured, or semi_structured
Advantages: in depth responses, nonverbal behavior and verbal mannerisms are observable
Ability to clarify question intent and responses
Disadvantages: can be time consuming and expensive
Interviewers must be well trained
Potential negative influence of interviewer |
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Term
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Definition
Determine behaviors to be observed and how they will be observed
Observation procedures: structured or unstructured, event sampling or time sampling
Relationship bran observer and subjects: covert or overt, participant or non participant |
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Term
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Definition
Likert scale: declarative statement with 5-7 possible responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree
Semantic differential scale: two adjectives/phrases presented as anchors on continuum, 5-9 possible responses
Visual analog scale (VAS): straight line (usually 100 mm) drawn on a piece of paper, anchored on each end by words/phrases, phenomenon extremes placed at ends of lines, subjects make a mark on line at pt that corresponds to their experience of the phenomenon |
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Term
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Definition
Hospital Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems
Survey instrument used to collect data on pt perceptions of their hospital experience: communication with nurses and physicians, responsiveness of hospital staff, cleanliness and quietness, pain management
Goals: enable objective comparisons of hospitals on topics important to consumers, provide incentives to hospitals to improve quality of care, enhance accountability by improving transparency |
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Term
| What is Evidenced Based Medicine? |
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Definition
Archie Cochrane introduced it.
The conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. |
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Term
| What is a Systematic Review? |
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Definition
Synthesis of best experimental studies on a particular topic
Looks at studies as a whole, draws conclusions, and makes recommendations for practice |
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Term
| What is an Integrative Review? |
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Definition
| Similar to systematic review but also includes qualitative and non experimental quantitative studies |
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Term
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Definition
Combines data from mltple quantitative studies into a single database
Difficult to do, but when done correctly it provides strongest form of evidence |
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Term
| What is the Process for creating a Systematic Review? |
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Definition
| Ask, Acquire, Appraise, Analyze, Apply, and Assess |
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Term
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Definition
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
Mission: identify the most effective ways to organize, manage, finance, and deliver high quality care, reduce medical errors, and improve patient safety.
Provides research funding |
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Term
| What is Evidence Based Nursing? |
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Definition
RU + nurses clinical expertise + pt values
Research Utilization: application of recommendations from research studies to nursing practice.
Leads to optimized pt outcomes |
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Term
| Why should you Ask Clinical Questions? |
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Definition
Technique for formatting clinical questions for a specific problem
P=pt or population
I= intervention or interest area
C= comparison intervention or current practice
O= outcomes desired
T= time to achieve outcome (optional) |
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